The paradox of long‐term ungulate impact: increase of plant species richness in a temperate forest

QUESTIONS: Did high densities of wild ungulates cause a decline in plant species richness in a temperate oak wood? How did species composition change after nearly five decades? Did ungulates facilitate the spread of ruderal species and supress endangered species? Did dispersal strategies play a role in these processes? LOCATION: Krumlov Wood, SE Czech Republic. METHODS: In 2012, we resampled 58 quasi‐permanent vegetation plots first surveyed in the 1960s. Between the surveys, 36 plots were enclosed in a game preserve with artificially high density of ungulates (mostly deer, mouflon and wild boar; ca. 55 animals·km⁻²). We analysed the differences in temporal changes between plots inside and outside the game preserve, focusing on species diversity and composition. We assessed species characteristics relevant to grazing to understand compositional changes. RESULTS: Ungulates significantly increased α‐ and γ‐diversity and caused significant vegetation homogenization inside the game preserve. Vegetation homogenization and the increase in species richness resulted from massive enrichment with ruderal species. However, richness of endangered species decreased. Species dispersed by animals internally (endozoochory) increased, while species dispersed externally (epizoochory) or by wind (anemochory) decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to our expectations, our long‐term data showed that artificially high ungulate densities substantially increased plant species richness. Apparently, the establishment of ruderal herbs was supported by frequent disturbances and ungulate‐mediated dispersal. At the same time, species richness of non‐ruderal plants did not change, probably because ungulates hindered the regeneration of woody species and maintained an open forest canopy. In conclusion, high ungulate density led to the spread of ruderal species, which in turn strongly contributed to the observed shift towards nutrient‐richer conditions and taxonomically more homogenous communities.