Combing public-private partnership and large-scale farming increased net ecosystem carbon budget and reduced carbon footprint of maize production

Limited adoption of advanced technologies and land fragmentation limit the sustainable intensification of agriculture in developing countries. Here, we explore and establish an integrated management strategy by combining the public-private partnership (PPP) and large-scale farming (LSF) for more profitable and sustainable no-tillage maize production. A case study was conducted in the North China Plain to determine the applicability and the key drivers underpinning PPP-LSF success. On average, maize under PPP-LSF yielded 10.4 Mg ha⁻¹, which was 11.8% and 19.4% greater than that of LSF and smallholder farming (SHF), respectively. Compared with LSF and SHF, the PPP-LSF achieved the highest energy use efficiency and the lowest negative environmental externalities. The carbon footprint of PPP-LSF was 267 kg CO₂-eq Mg⁻¹, which was 32.7% and 38.2% lower than that of LSF and SHF, respectively. A new causal factor analysis developed in this study revealed that the mechanised application of controlled-release formula fertilisers, eliminating top-dressing, was the main factor for low carbon footprint in PPP-LSF. The mean net ecosystem carbon budget (NECB), sustainability index, and net ecosystem economic benefit of PPP-LSF were 22.5 Mg C ha⁻¹, 17.1 and 2040 $ ha⁻¹, respectively, which were increased by 15.3% and 23.9%, 55.5% and 69.3%, and 28.7% and 50.3% compared with LSF and SHF. Higher net primary productivity related soil carbon sequestration potential and lower field carbon emissions were the main drivers of high NCEB of PPP-LSF. This real-world commercial crop production-based example illustrates the value and potential of PPP-LSF in utilising modern innovative farming technologies and management strategies to accelerate agricultural productivity and resources conservation with reduced environmental footprints.