An assessment of the fate, behaviour and environmental risk associated with sunscreen TiO₂ nanoparticles in UK field scenarios
2011
Johnson, Andrew C. | Bowes, Michael J. | Crossley, Alison | Jarvie, Helen P. | Jurkschat, Kerstin | Jürgens, Monika D. | Lawlor, Alan J. | Park, Barry | Rowland, Phillip | Spurgeon, David | Svendsen, Claus | Thompson, Ian P. | Barnes, Robert J. | Williams, Dick (Richard J.) | Xu, Nan
The fate of Ti was examined in an activated sludge plant serving over 200,000 people. These studies revealed a decrease of 30 to 3.2μg/L of Ti<0.45μm from influent to effluent and a calculated Ti presence of 305mg/kg DW in wasted sludge. Thus, using sludge as a fertiliser would result in a predicted deposition of up to 250mg/m² of Ti to soil surfaces using a recommended maximal agricultural application rate. Given the major use of TiO₂ in many industrial and domestic applications where loss to the sewer is possible, this measured Ti was presumed to have been largely TiO₂, a proportion of which will be nanoparticle sized. To assess the behaviour of engineered nanoparticle (ENP) TiO₂ in sewage and toxicology studies, Optisol (Oxonica Materials Ltd) and P25 (Evonik Industries AG), which are representative of forms used in sunscreen and cosmetic products, were used. These revealed a close association of TiO₂ ENPs with activated sludge. Using commercial information on consumption, and removal rates for sewage treatment, predictions were made for river water concentrations for sunscreen TiO₂ ENPs for the Anglian and Thames regions in Southern England. The highest predicted value from these exercises was 8.8μg/L for the Thames region in which it was assumed that one in four people used the recommended application of sunscreen during a low flow (Q95) period. Ecotoxicological studies using potentially vulnerable species indicated that 1000μg/L TiO₂ ENP did not affect the viability of a mixed community of river bacteria in the presence of UV light. Direct exposure to TiO₂ ENPs did not impair the immuno-effectiveness of earthworm coelomocyte cells at concentrations greatly above those predicted for sewage sludge.
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