Differential effects of biogenic and chemically synthesized silver-nanoparticles application on physiological traits, antioxidative status and californidine content in California poppy (Eschscholzia californica Cham)

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) of both biologically and chemically origins trigger various physiological and metabolic processes through interaction with plant cells, exerting positive, negative and inconsequential effects. However, their impacts on plant systems must be critically investigated to guarantee their safe application in food chain. In this study, the effects of chemically synthesized (synthetic) AgNPs (sAgNPs) and biologically synthesized (biogenic) AgNPs (bAgNPs) on physiological and biochemical features of Eschscholzia californica Cham were evaluated at different concentrations (0, 10, 25, 50 and 100 mg L⁻¹). Plants exposed to bAgNPs (at 10 and 25 mg L⁻¹) and sAgNPs (at 10 mg L⁻¹) displayed relatively uniform deposition of AgNPs on leaf surface, however, the higher concentration (100 mg L⁻¹) was accompanied by aggregation of AgNPs, resulting in anatomical and physiological disorders. Foliar application of both AgNPs at lower concentrations resulted in significant (P < 0.01) improve in the content of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls a, b, a+b, and carotenoids) and total phenolics over the control in a dose-related manner. Leaf relative water content decreased steadily with increasing both sAgNPs and bAgNPs concentrations-with sAgNPs being more inhibitive. Both types of AgNPs at 100 mg L⁻¹ significantly (P < 0.05) increased electrolyte leakage index, level of lipid peroxidation product (malondialdehyde), and leaf soluble sugar content when compared to controls. No significant difference was found on cell membrane stability index among the plants exposed to bAgNPs and sAgNPs at the lowest concentration over the control. Californidine content was significantly (P < 0.01, by 45.1%) increased upon all the bAgNPs treatments (with a peak at 25 mg L⁻¹) relative to control. The obtained extracts from plants treated with bAgNPs at lower concentrations revealed a significant induction of antioxidant capacity (based on DPPH˙ free radical scavenging and ferrous ions-chelating activities) with lower IC₅₀ values compared to the other treatments. Conclusively, bAgNPs at lower concentrations are potent elicitors of pharmaceutically active compounds biosynthesis, which enhance physiological efficiency of E. californica, but at higher concentrations bAgNPs are equally toxic as sAgNPs.