Access to irrigation and its impact on vulnerability to poverty and food security amongst South African farming households = Ukufinyelela ekuniseleni kanye nomthelela wakho engcupheni yobumpofu nokuvikeleka kokudla phakathi kwemindeni yaseNingizimu Afrikha elimayo.

Doctoral Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg.

The significance of participating in irrigation technology in eliminating vulnerability to poverty and improving farming households’ food security status cannot be overemphasized. Numerous studies have empirically examined the influence of farm management practices, including irrigation, on poverty reduction and overall household well-being. However, a notable gap exists in the literature concerning the specific impact of irrigation farming on vulnerability to poverty, multidimensional household poverty, and the welfare of rural farming households. This study aims to address this gap by exploring the nuanced relationship between irrigation participation and key welfare indicators within the context of rural communities. The study consists of four main objectives, each of which is an article and chapter of this thesis. In each of the articles, the significance, methods, data, findings and policy implications are detailed, and these are presented in the below sections. In the first objective, the study employed the documentary analysis approach and bibliometric technique to mine and analyse relevant documents for evaluating facts and evidence, which largely concurs with the method of information gathering used in the qualitative study method. In the analysis period (1991-2022), the most published articles on impacts of irrigation on household poverty appeared to be in 2022, indicating the growing concern on depleting food resource access. Overall, the findings revealed that irrigation adoption produced better yields and increased farm incomes thereby reducing rural household poverty as well as vulnerability to poverty. The study, therefore, suggests that more sophisticated and innovative methods, such as the proposed multi-level framework, conglomerate approach, and community-led solutions, should be developed and implemented to promote household food dynamics, food system resilience, and governance in the context of South Africa. The second segment of the research focuses on the effect of participation in irrigation farming on food security among rural farming households. The study employed an endogenous treatment effect with ordered outcome to achieve its objectives. The empirical findings indicate that the engagement of rural households in irrigation farming has a higher probability of mitigating food insecurity. This is attributed to the enhanced productivity and improved food accessibility that irrigation farming provides, particularly in the face of severe weather-induced shocks like drought. The findings also showed that the gender of the household head, the size of the household, unemployment status, access to market outlets, remittances and crop diversification (CDV) factors increase the likelihood of rural farmers’ involvement in irrigation farming, as well as reduces their food insecurity. Based on the findings, the study suggested that government intervention policies and a restructuring of rural operations to include more technological innovations such as advanced irrigation systems be reviewed. The third segment of the study focuses on the vulnerability of smallholder farmers to multidimensional poverty, which was carried out using the Alkire Foster multidimensional poverty index developed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative. The findings showed that the deprivation indicator ranges from 5% to 90%, where about 66% and 55% were deprived of food security (SDG2) and education (SDG4), respectively. The results of the probit analysis reveal that gender, remittances, crop diversification (CDV), education, seasonal farming and market outlets significantly influence the multidimensional poverty and vulnerability to multidimensional poverty of rural households in the study areas. The last part of the study examines the factors that influence farmers’ participation in irrigation farming, as well as how it affects farmers’ welfare (proxy by food consumption expenditure per capita) and household poverty (indicated by the poverty gap index, poverty severity and poverty vulnerability). The endogenous switching regression (ESR) model was employed to account for selection bias that could be caused by both observed and unobserved household factors, including observed and unobserved farm-level factors. The empirical results show that gender, household size, educational attainment, crop diversification and market outlets, among others, influenced farmers’ decisions to practise irrigation farming. Farmers engaging in irrigation farming have their food consumption per capita increased by 44%, while nonparticipants would have increased their consumption expenditure per capita by 23% if they had participated. Moreover, the participating farmers reduced their poverty gap index by 20% and poverty severity by 22%, whereas non-participating farmers could have reduced their poverty gap index and poverty severity by 5% and 17%, respectively had they engaged in irrigation farming. Participation in irrigation farming also reduced poverty vulnerability by 25%, while non-participants may have reduced poverty vulnerability by 3% had they participated. Overall, the study suggests that the household food dynamics and food system resilience and governance in the context of South Africa need to devote more time to reliable and innovative methods, such as the conglomerate approach, community-led solutions and appropriate strategies, which need to be implemented in order to mitigate the collapse of the nation’s food systems. In addition, the study recommend that enhancing farmers’ access to irrigation is crucial for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to eradicate poverty in all its manifestations everywhere. Lastly, the study suggests that improving policies related to improving education and increasing crop diversification among other factors, could contribute to reducing the multidimensional poverty and the households’ vulnerability to poverty. Iqoqa. Ukubaluleka kokubamba iqhaza kubuchwepheshe bokuchelela ekuqedeni ubungozi bobumpofu nokwenza ngcono isimo sokuvikeleka kokudla kwemindeni yabalimi ngeke kugcizelelwe ngokweqile. Ucwaningo oluningi luye lwahlola ngamandla umthelela wezinqubo zokuphatha amapulazi, okuhlanganisa ukuchelela, ekunciphiseni ubumpofu kanye nokuphila kahle kwasekhaya. Kodwa-ke, kunegebe elibonakalayo ezincwadini eziphathelene nomthelela othile wokulima ngenkasa ekubeni sengozini yobumpofu, ubumpofu bamakhaya obuhlukahlukene, kanye nenhlalakahle yamakhaya abalimi basemaphandleni. Lolu cwaningo luhlose ukubhekana naleli gebe ngokuhlola ubudlelwano obuncane phakathi kokubamba iqhaza kokuchelela kanye nezinkomba ezibalulekile zenhlalakahle ngaphakathi komongo wemiphakathi yasemaphandleni. Ucwaningo luqukethe izinhloso ezine ezibalulekile, ngayinye eyindatshana nesahluko salo mbhalo weziqu zobudokotela. Endatshaneni ngayinye, ukubaluleka, izindlela, idatha, okutholakele kanye nemithelela yenqubomgomo kunemininingwane, futhi lokhu kuvezwa ezigabeni ezingezansi. Emgomweni wokuqala, ucwaningo lusebenzise indlela yokuhlaziya amadokhumentari kanye nenqubo ye-bibliometric ukuze ivundulule futhi ihlaziye imibhalo efanele ukuze kuhlolwe amaqiniso nobufakazi, okuhambisana kakhulu nendlela yokuqoqa ulwazi esetshenziswa endleleni yocwaningo lwekhwalithethivu. Esikhathini sokuhlaziya (1991-2022), ama-athikili ashicilelwe kakhulu ngemithelela yokunisela ebuphofini basekhaya abonakale engowezi-2022, okubonisa ukukhathazeka okwandayo ngokuqedwa kokufinyelela kwensiza yokudla. Sekukonke, okutholakele kuveze ukuthi ukutholwa kokunisela kukhiqize isivuno esingcono futhi kwenyuse imali etholwa emapulazini ngaleyo ndlela kwehlise ubumpofu emakhaya kanye nokuba sengozini yobubha. Ngakho-ke, lolu cwaningo luphakamisa ukuthi izindlela eziyinkimbinkimbi nezintsha, njengohlaka oluhlongozwayo olunamazinga amaningi, indlela ye-conglomerate, kanye nezixazululo eziholwa ngumphakathi, kufanele zithuthukiswe futhi zisetshenziswe ukuze kuthuthukiswe amandla okudla kwasekhaya, ukuqina kohlelo lokudla, kanye nokubusa endaweni. isimo saseNingizimu Afrikha. Ingxenye yesibili yocwaningo igxile emphumeleni wokubamba iqhaza ekulimeni ngenkasa ekuqinisekiseni ukutholakala kokudla phakathi kwemindeni yasemakhaya yabalimi. Ucwaningo lusebenzise umphumela wokwelapha we-endogenous onemiphumela eyaliwe ukuze kuzuzwe izinhloso zalo. Okutholakele okunobufakazi kubonisa ukuthi ukusebenzelana kwemindeni yasemakhaya ekulimeni ngenkasa kunamathuba aphezulu okunciphisa ukuntula ukudla. Lokhu kubangelwa ukukhiqiza okuthuthukisiwe kanye nokufinyeleleka okuthuthukisiwe kokudla okuhlinzekwa ngokuniselwa ngenkasa, ikakhulukazi lapho kubhekene nezimo ezinzima ezibangelwa isimo sezulu njengesomiso. Okutholakele kuphinde kwakhombisa ukuthi ubulili benhloko yekhaya, ubukhulu bomuzi, isimo sokungasebenzi, ukutholakala kwezitolo, imali ephumayo kanye nokuhlukahluka kwezitshalo (crop diversification) (CDV) kwandisa amathuba okuba abalimi basemaphandleni babambe iqhaza ekulimeni ngenkasa, kanye nokunciphisa ukuntula ukudla kwabo. Ngokusekelwe kulokho okutholiwe, ucwaningo luphakamise ukuthi kubuyekezwe izinqubomgomo zokungenelela zikahulumeni kanye nokuhlelwa kabusha kwemisebenzi yasemakhaya ukuze kufakwe izinto ezintsha zobuchwepheshe ezifana nezinhlelo zokuchelela ezithuthukile. Ingxenye yesithathu yocwaningo igxile ekubeni sengozini yabalimi abancane ebuphofini obuhlukahlukene, olwenziwa kusetshenziswa i-Alkire Foster multidimensional poverty index eyathuthukiswa yi-Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative. Okutholakele kubonise ukuthi inkomba yokuncishwa isukela ku-5% kuya ku-90%, lapho cishe ama-66% kanye nama-55% aphucwa ukuphepha kokudla (SDG2) kanye nemfundo (SDG4), ngokulandelana. Imiphumela yokuhlaziywa kwe-probit iveza ukuthi ubulili, ukukhishwa kwemali, ukuhlukahluka kwezitshalo (CDV), imfundo, ukulima ngezikhathi ezithile kanye nezitolo zezimakethe zinethonya elikhulu ebuphofini obuhlukahlukene kanye nokuba sengozini yobumpofu obuhlukahlukene bemindeni yasemakhaya ezindaweni zocwaningo. Ingxenye yokugcina yocwaningo ihlola izici ezithonya ukubamba iqhaza kwabalimi ekulimeni ngenkasa, kanye nokuthi kuyithinta kanjani inhlalakahle yabalimi (ummeleli ngezindleko zokusetshenziswa kokudla umuntu ngamunye) kanye nobumpofu basekhaya (okuboniswa yinkomba yegebe lobumpofu, ubunzima bobubha kanye nobumpofu). Imodeli ye-endogenous switching regression (ESR) yasetshenziswa ukuze kubhekelelwe ukuchema okungase kubangelwe yizinto zombili ezibonwayo nezingaqashelwanga ekhaya, okuhlanganisa izici eziphawuliwe nezingaqashelwanga ezingeni lepulazi. Imiphumela yabonisa ukuthi ubulili, ubukhulu bekhaya, ukuzuzwa kwemfundo, ukuhlukahluka kwezitshalo kanye nezitolo zezimakethe, phakathi kokunye, kube nomthelela ezinqumweni zabalimi zokutshala ngenkasa. Abalimi abalima ngenkasa ukudla kwabo kukhuphuke ngo-44%, kanti abangabambanga iqhaza bebezokwandisa ukusetshenziswa kwabo ngo-23% uma bebambe iqhaza. Ngaphezu kwalokho, abalimi ababambe iqhaza banciphisa inkomba yegebe lobumpofu ngo-20% kanye nobunzima bobumpofu ngama-22%, kanti abalimi abangahlanganyelanga bebengase behlise inkomba yegebe lobumpofu kanye nobukhulu bobumpofu ngo-5% no-17%, ngokulandelana kwabo, ukube bebelima ngenkasa. Ukubamba iqhaza ekulimeni ngenkasa kuphinde kwanciphisa ukuba sengcupheni yobumpofu ngama-25%, kuyilapho abangabambanga iqhaza bengase banciphise ukuba sengcupheni yobumpofu ngama-3% uma bebambe iqhaza. Sekukonke, ucwaningo luphakamisa ukuthi ukuguquguquka kokudla kwasekhaya kanye nokuqina kohlelo lokudla kanye nokubusa esimweni saseNingizimu Afrikha kudingeka kunikeze isikhathi esengeziwe ezindleleni ezinokwethenjelwa nezintsha, ezifana nendlela yokuhlangana, izixazululo eziholwa umphakathi kanye namasu afanelekile, okudingeka zisetshenziswe ukuze kuncishiswe ukuwa kwezinhlelo zokudla zesizwe. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ucwaningo luncoma ukuthi ukuthuthukisa ukufinyeleleka kwabalimi ekuniseleni kubalulekile ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nezinjongo zentuthuko eziqhubekayo (SDGs), ezihlose ukuqeda ubumpofu kukho konke ukubonakaliswa kwayo yonke indawo. Okokugcina, ucwaningo luphakamisa ukuthi ukuthuthukisa izinqubomgomo eziphathelene nokwenza ngcono imfundo kanye nokwandisa ukuhlukahluka kwezitshalo phakathi kwezinye izici, kungaba nomthelela ekwehliseni ubumpofu obuhlukahlukene kanye nokuba sengozini kwemizi ebuphofini.