The exploration of livelihoods and food security in Limpopo province: insights from small-scale irrigation schemes users.

Doctoral Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg.

Three-quarters of the global population living in poverty, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, depend on small-scale agriculture for their income and food security. This thesis addresses the pivotal role of smallholder farmers in the fight against global poverty and hunger, specifically aiming to explore and gain insight into the role of small-scale irrigation schemes on livelihoods and household food security in Limpopo Province. Despite using traditional and unimproved farming techniques, these farmers occupy a significant portion of global farmland, producing the majority of the world's food. However, they often find themselves trapped in a cycle of poverty, rendering them less productive compared to large-scale counterparts. Access to water and land is fundamental to food security, defined as regular access to sufficient high-quality food for healthy living. Water scarcity can trigger famine and undernourishment, particularly in regions relying on local agriculture. Many of Africa's small-scale farmers are women who lack access to production resources. Despite African governments' commitment to allocate at least 10 percent of annual budgets to agriculture research and development, few have met this target. Collaboration with women farmers and their organizations is crucial to amplify their concerns globally as they often form the majority of farmers. This study adopts the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework and people-centred development approaches to examine the livelihoods and food security of women smallholder farmers in three selected irrigation schemes in Limpopo Province. Specific objectives include: (i) to identify and describe the livelihood assets of small-scale irrigation scheme women farmers; (ii) to determine the current household food security status of small-scale irrigation scheme women farmers; and (iii) to analyse the current policies’ impact on livelihoods and food security on smallholder irrigation scheme women farmers. A mixed-methods approach was employed, involving questionnaires, observations, and focus group discussions. Three irrigation schemes were chosen purposefully based on their relevance to the research criteria, long crop production histroy, and willingness to participate. Quantitative data was analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), while content analysis was applied to qualitative data. Logistic regression was employed to analyse determinants of household food security status. The study revealed that livelihoods were constructed from assets, influenced by knowledge of agriculture, water management and marketing strategies. Escalating water costs, competition for water resources, and inadequate water management emerged as significant challenges. Using the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS), the food security assessment indicated that approximately one-third of the sampled farming households experienced food insecurity. The logistic regression model identified gender, age, education, income, and adult males as positive influences on household food security. The study underscores the crucial role of women farmers in these irrigation schemes and highlights the need for proactive political leadership. South Africa's water legislation aligns with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) principles, emphasizing policy coherence and stakeholder engagement, but implementation issues persist, especially in transitioning responsibilities from national to catchment levels. Deteriorating monitoring systems and declining data quality control pose risks to local food security. Crosssectoral consultation is imperative to establish coordinated efforts and ensure long-term, multisectoral water resource management, safeguarding local livelihoods and food security. Keywords: Food Security, land use, water use, smallholder irrigation, gender, Limpopo Province