Ibuprofen Pollution in the Environment: A Critical Review of Sources, Physicochemical Properties, Ecotoxicological Implications, Human Health Risks, and Bioremediation Technologies

Ibuprofen (IBU) is increasingly recognized as a significant category of emerging micropollutants that infiltrate aquatic ecosystems. IBU possesses a significant capacity to inflict ecological harm, adversely affecting both ecosystems and the health of humans and animals. The primary contributors to the environmental presence of IBU encompass the pharmaceutical manufacturing sector, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), hospital effluents, and agricultural byproducts. The degradation of IBU is contingent upon various factors, including its chemical and biological persistence, physicochemical properties, and the methodologies employed for its treatment. A multitude of techniques has been employed to mitigate its detrimental effects, involve adsorption, coagulation, bioremediation (constructed wetlands (CWs), membrane bioreactors (MBRs), microalgal-based systems), advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), membrane filtration systems (including reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, and microfiltration), as well as photocatalytic methods, among others. The exploration of more innovative and effective technologies aimed at IBU degradation necessitates a thorough investigation and should be specifically tailored for cost-efficiency and scalability. Additionally, the assessment of green and eco-friendly alternatives for IBU, characterized by attributes such as negligible bioaccumulation, minimal persistence, environmental compatibility, and low or no toxicity, is equally essential. Bacterial degradation mechanisms constitute a highly promising alternative for the biodegradation of IBU, especially through the application of meticulously chosen strains that have been isolated from contaminated environments.