Rhipicephalus appendiculatus serpin-3 (RAS-3), R. appendiculatus serpin-4 (RAS-4) and a 36kDa immuno-dominant protein of R. appendiculatus (RIM36) were reported as candidate antigens for the anti-tick vaccine to control ixodid ticks. In the present study, we generated recombinant proteins of RAS-3 (rRAS-3), RAS-4 (rRAS-4) and RIM36 (rRIM36), and assessed their potency as an anti-tick cocktail vaccine in cattle model. RT-PCR analysis showed that RAS-3, RAS-4 and RIM136 transcripts were detected in both adult male and female ticks during feeding. Immunization of cattle with the combination of rRAS-3, rRAS-4 and rRIM36 had raised antibodies against all recombinants and anti-sera had reacted with the molecules from the tick salivary gland extract. Tick infestation challenge demonstrated protective immunity against female ticks, resulting in mortality rates of 39.5 and 12.8 % for the vaccinated and control groups, respectively. Moreover, the mortality rate of Theileria parva-infected female ticks was 48.5 and 10.8 % in the vaccinated and control group, respectively. In order to evaluate the levels of pathogen transmission capacity by T. parva-infected ticks fed on immunized cattle, the occurrence of T. parva in the bovine parotid lymph node and peripheral blood was also determined and quantified by real-time PCR. Although the infection with T. parva could not be protected by the vaccine, the occurrence of pathogen in peripheral blood was delayed 1 to 2 days after the infestation challenge in vaccinated group. These results suggest that this cocktail vaccine plays a role in the prevention of tick infestation.

Eco-tourism depending on wildlife is becoming increasingly profitable and landowners are beginning to favor game farming and ecotourism. In these areas, large-scale translocation of wildlife involves a diversity of species and large populations. The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is one of the major tourist attractions in Zambia. It accounts for 8.7% and 12.4% of the total animal species hunted in the Game Management Areas and the total hunting revenue earned in Zambia, respectively. It is ecologically an important animal species essential for the purpose of habitat control and facilitating the provision of suitable grazing pastures. However, the rearing of the African buffalo on game ranches has been hampered by its carrier state of the Southern Africa Terroritory (SAT) serotypes of foot and mouth disease virus (FMD). The African buffalo is also known to be a carrier of Theileria parva lawrencei, the causative agent of corridor disease (CD) that continues to have devastating effects on the livestock industry in Zambia. In addition, the importation of buffaloes from countries with populations endemic to bovine tuberculosis is highly restricted. Veterinary regulations in Zambia, strongly advocate against the translocation of buffaloes from protected areas to private ranches for disease control purposes thereby mounting a considerable constraint on the economic and ecological viability of the industry. It is hoped that this review will motivate the relevant government authorities in exploiting ways in which this animal species play a central role in eco-tourism.