The macroscopic features of the venous drainage of the reproductive system of the male ostrich were studied in six pre-pubertal and three sexually mature and active birds. Each testis was drained by one to four testicular veins. The right testicular veins drained the right testis and epididymis and its appendix to the caudal vena cava and to the right common iliac vein, whereas the left testicular veins drained the left testis and epididymis and its appendix exclusively to the left common iliac vein. A number of variations in the drainage pattern based on the point of entry and number of testicular veins were observed. The cranial aspect of the testis was also linked to the caudal vena cava or common iliac vein via the adrenal veins. The cranial, middle and caudal segments of the ductus deferens (and ureter) were drained by the cranial, middle and caudal ureterodeferential veins respectively, to the caudal testicular veins, the caudal renal veins and pudendal / caudal part of the internal iliac veins. In some specimens, the caudal ureterodeferential veins also drained into the caudal mesenteric vein. The surface of the phallus was drained by tributaries of the pudendal vein. The basic pattern of venous drainage of the reproductive organs of the male ostrich was generally similar to that described for the domestic fowl. However, important differences, including the partial fusion of the caudal renal veins, drainage of the cranial aspect of the testes via the adrenal veins, drainage of the caudal ureterodeferential veins into the caudal mesenteric vein and the presence of veins draining the surface of the phallus, were observed. Although significant, these differences may simply reflect variations in the normal pattern of venous drainage of the reproductive tract of birds which could be verified by studying more specimens and more species.

The macroscopic features of the venous drainage of the reproductive system of the male ostrich were studied in six pre-pubertal and three sexually mature and active birds. Each testis was drained by one to four testicular veins. The right testicular veins drained the right testis and epididymis and its appendix to the caudal vena cava and to the right common iliac vein, whereas the left testicular veins drained the left testis and epididymis and its appendix exclusively to the left common iliac vein. A number of variations in the drainage pattern based on the point of entry and number of testicular veins were observed. The cranial aspect of the testis was also linked to the caudal vena cava or common iliac vein via the adrenal veins. The cranial, middle and caudal segments of the ductus deferens (and ureter) were drained by the cranial, middle and caudal ureterodeferential veins respectively, to the caudal testicular veins, the caudal renal veins and pudendal / caudal part of the internal iliac veins. In some specimens, the caudal ureterodeferential veins also drained into the caudal mesenteric vein. The surface of the phallus was drained by tributaries of the pudendal vein. The basic pattern of venous drainage of the reproductive organs of the male ostrich was generally similar to that described for the domestic fowl. However, important differences, including the partial fusion of the caudal renal veins, drainage of the cranial aspect of the testes via the adrenal veins, drainage of the caudal ureterodeferential veins into the caudal mesenteric vein and the presence of veins draining the surface of the phallus, were observed. Although significant, these differences may simply reflect variations in the normal pattern of venous drainage of the reproductive tract of birds which could be verified by studying more specimens and more species.

Body condition scoring (BCS) gives an indication of the nutritional status of an animal and it is thus an invaluable management tool in domestic livestock systems. It is, however, subjective. This study aimed at identifying biochemical indicators which could be objectively used as an indicator of undernutrition in ruminants. Blood samples were collected from 50 cattle with BCS 1 and from 50 cattle with BCS 2.5, using a 0-5 scale, and analysed for albumin, urea, creatinine, fructosamine, beta-hydroxybutyrate, non-esterified fatty acids, total serum protein and haematocrit. Rumpfat and ribfat thickness and marbling relative index were determined ultrasonographically in 15 of the low BCS group and 13 of the high BCS group. The laboratory measure with the best predictive ability for severe undernutrition was albumin, which correctly classified 94 % of cattle, using a cut-off of 31.5 g / ℓ. In contrast to a previous study, our study did not find the fructosamine : albumin ratio to be an accurate test to indicate undernutrition in cattle. Ultrasonic measurement of subcutaneous rumpfat and ribfat proved to reliably predict undernutrition, but may, however be impractical for routine use under most field conditions.

Body condition scoring (BCS) gives an indication of the nutritional status of an animal and it is thus an invaluable management tool in domestic livestock systems. It is, however, subjective. This study aimed at identifying biochemical indicators which could be objectively used as an indicator of undernutrition in ruminants. Blood samples were collected from 50 cattle with BCS ≤ 1 and from 50 cattle with BCS ≥ 2.5, using a 0-5 scale, and analysed for albumin, urea, creatinine, fructosamine, beta-hydroxybutyrate, non-esterified fatty acids, total serum protein and haematocrit. Rumpfat and ribfat thickness and marbling relative index were determined ultrasonographically in 15 of the low BCS group and 13 of the high BCS group. The laboratory measure with the best predictive ability for severe undernutrition was albumin, which correctly classified 94 % of cattle, using a cut-off of 31.5 g / ℓ. In contrast to a previous study, our study did not find the fructosamine : albumin ratio to be an accurate test to indicate undernutrition in cattle. Ultrasonic measurement of subcutaneous rumpfat and ribfat proved to reliably predict undernutrition, but may, however be impractical for routine use under most field conditions.

In a preliminary survey conducted in 2005, the species composition and seasonality of ticks infesting cattle in Central Equatoria State, Southern Sudan was determined. Three locations were selected (Gumbo, Khor Rumla and Nyaing) and surveyed every 3 months. Two cattle herds in each of the three locations were visited four times during the study period. Total body collections of ticks were made from each of five cattle (Nilotic Zebu breed) kept in six different herds. Four tick genera and ten species were identified. The tick species identified were Amblyomma lepidum, Amblyomma variegatum, Boophilus annulatus, Boophilus decoloratus, Hyalomma marginatum rufipes, Hyalomma truncatum, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi, Rhipicephalus praetextatus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus group. The highest number of ticks was collected in October during the rainy season. A finding of great significance was that R. appendiculatus, vector of East Coast fever, has now firmly established itself throughout the year with possible implications for cattle production in Central Equatoria State.

In a preliminary survey conducted in 2005, the species composition and seasonality of ticks infesting cattle in Central Equatoria State, Southern Sudan was determined. Three locations were selected (Gumbo, Khor Rumla and Nyaing) and surveyed every 3 months. Two cattle herds in each of the three locations were visited four times during the study period. Total body collections of ticks were made from each of five cattle (Nilotic Zebu breed) kept in six different herds. Four tick genera and ten species were identified. The tick species identified were Amblyomma lepidum, Amblyomma variegatum, Boophilus annulatus, Boophilus decoloratus, Hyalomma marginatum rufipes, Hyalomma truncatum, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi, Rhipicephalus praetextatus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus group. The highest number of ticks was collected in October during the rainy season. A finding of great significance was that R. appendiculatus, vector of East Coast fever, has now firmly established itself throughout the year with possible implications for cattle production in Central Equatoria State.

A Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) real-time reverse-transcription (rRT-PCR) assay was developed that distinguishes stains of South African and European highly pathogenic (HPAI) from low pathogenicity (LPAI) H5 avian influenza viruses in the absence of virus isolation, irrespective of the length of insertion at the hemagglutinin cleavage site (H0). The assay was used to pathotype H5-type viruses detected by rRT-PCR in ostrich tracheal swabs collected during the 2006 HPAI H5N2 outbreak in the Western Cape Province.

A Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) real-time reverse-transcription (rRT-PCR) assay was developed that distinguishes stains of South African and European highly pathogenic (HPAI) from low pathogenicity (LPAI) H5 avian influenza viruses in the absence of virus isolation, irrespective of the length of insertion at the hemagglutinin cleavage site (H0). The assay was used to pathotype H5-type viruses detected by rRT-PCR in ostrich tracheal swabs collected during the 2006 HPAI H5N2 outbreak in the Western Cape Province.

Four stocks of Ehrlichiar uminantium (Welgevonden, Ball3, Nonile and Blaauwkrans), the causative agent of heartwater in domestic ruminants, were isolated into lxodes capularis (lDE8) tick cells using the leukocyte fraction of the blood of infected sheep. Organisms of two of the E. ruminantrum stocks (Welgevonden and Blaauwkrans) propagated in IDEB cells were also successfully used to infect bovine endothelial cells. All stocks were successfully propagated in IDEB cells using Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium nutrient mixture Ham F-12c ontaining 10% foetal bovine serum (FBS). The technique should be included in any attempt to isolate uncharacterized E. ruminantium stocks.

Four stocks of Ehrlichiar uminantium (Welgevonden, Ball3, Nonile and Blaauwkrans), the causative agent of heartwater in domestic ruminants, were isolated into lxodes capularis (lDE8) tick cells using the leukocyte fraction of the blood of infected sheep. Organisms of two of the E. ruminantrum stocks (Welgevonden and Blaauwkrans) propagated in IDEB cells were also successfully used to infect bovine endothelial cells. All stocks were successfully propagated in IDEB cells using Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium nutrient mixture Ham F-12c ontaining 10% foetal bovine serum (FBS). The technique should be included in any attempt to isolate uncharacterized E. ruminantium stocks.

In four Kenyan pig breeding units the pregnancy diagnosis of sows has been carried out in two groups: Group 1 (n = 1911): the sows were transrectaly pregnancy tested between Days 17–22 post-mating by ultrasound. Sows testing non-pregnant immediately received one dose of 400 IU pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) (equine chorion gonadotropin, eCG) and 200 IU human chorion gonadotropin (hCG). On showing signs of oestrous, the animals were subsequently artificially inseminated (AI). Group 2 (n = 1923): sows were pregnancy tested by serum progesterone (P4)-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) on Day 17 post-breeding. P4 concentrations were categorized as positive ( 5 ng/ml) or negative ( 5 ng/ml). Sows testing non-pregnant immediately received one dose of 400 IU PMSG and 200 IU hCG by injection, and were subsequently artificially inseminated. The following parameters were evaluated: sows diagnosed non-pregnant, days from first post-weaning insemination until the sows were inseminated at their first return to oestrus; farrowing rate and total piglets born and number of live-born piglets in litters.The percentage of sows diagnosed non-pregnant in the two groups, as well as the totals of born piglets and of live-born piglets in litters did not differ significantly between the two groups. The number of days from the first post-weaning mating until the sows were artificially inseminated at their first return to oestrus and the administration of eCG and hCG was shorter (P 0.01) and farrowing rate was higher (P 0.01) in the ELISA-tested sows.

In four Kenyan pig breeding units the pregnancy diagnosis of sows has been carried out in two groups: Group 1 (n = 1911): the sows were transrectaly pregnancy tested between Days 1722 post-mating by ultrasound. Sows testing non-pregnant immediately received one dose of 400 IU pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) (equine chorion gonadotropin, eCG) and 200 IU human chorion gonadotropin (hCG). On showing signs of oestrous, the animals were subsequently artificially inseminated (AI). Group 2 (n = 1923): sows were pregnancy tested by serum progesterone (P4)-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) on Day 17 post-breeding. P4 concentrations were categorized as positive (> 5 ng/ml) or negative (< 5 ng/ml). Sows testing non-pregnant immediately received one dose of 400 IU PMSG and 200 IU hCG by injection, and were subsequently artificially inseminated. The following parameters were evaluated: sows diagnosed non-pregnant, days from first post-weaning insemination until the sows were inseminated at their first return to oestrus; farrowing rate and total piglets born and number of live-born piglets in litters. The percentage of sows diagnosed non-pregnant in the two groups, as well as the totals of born piglets and of live-born piglets in litters did not differ significantly between the two groups. The number of days from the first post-weaning mating until the sows were artificially inseminated at their first return to oestrus and the administration of eCG and hCG was shorter (P < 0.01) and farrowing rate was higher (P < 0.01) in the ELISA-tested sows.

Lactose in normal saline was administered intravenously to a group of Zebu cattle infected with Trypanosoma vivax to determine the bloodplasma kinetics at onset of an experimental infection and its ability to protect tissues against damage as part of preliminary studies to determine its suitability for use in the treatment of trypanosomosis. Significant (P 0.01) higher lactose concentrations were observed in the T. vivax-intecled bulls at 30 min and 1h (P 0.05) post-infectio (p.i.) and by 4 h p.i. the plasma lactose remained above the level prior to infusion, after which it fell slightly below the preinfusion level in the uninfected group. Calculated pharmacokinetic parameters revealed delayed excretion of lactose in the T. vivax-intected group soon after infection. The total body clearance (C/B )was significantly (P 0.05) reduced. The biological half-life (t1/2), elimination rate constant (kel) and apparent volume of distribution (Vd) were relatively decreased (P 0.05) as a result of the T. vivax infection. Retention of lactose in the plasma was attributed to decreased plasma clearance l.t is suggested that the presence of trypanosomes in circulation rather than organic lesions could have been responsible for the delay observed in the excretion of lactose.At 12 weeks p.i., when the experiment was terminated, the group infected and given lactose infusion (despiteh igherp arasitaemia) had no gross or histopathological lesions in the brain, spleen, lymphnodes, heart, kidneys, liver and testes. However, the group infected but not infused with lactose were emaciated, had pale mucosae, watery blood, general muscular atrophy, serous atrophy of coronary fat and other adiposet issue, hepatomegalys, plenomegalys, wollen and oedematous lymph nodes, all of which are suggestive of trypanosomosis. Histopathological lesions included arrowing of Bowman's space and hypercellularity of glomerular tufts in the kidneys with the mean glomerula truft nucleairn dices (GTNs) in the group significantly higher (P 0.01)than the mean GTNs of the lactoseinfused and control bulls. Degenerative changes occurred in the myocardium, spleen, testes and epididymides. The tesicular and epididymal lesions are indicative of male reproductive dysfunction.

Lactose in normal saline was administered intravenously to a group of Zebu cattle infected with Trypanosoma vivax to determine the bloodplasma kinetics at onset of an experimental infection and its ability to protect tissues against damage as part of preliminary studies to determine its suitability for use in the treatment of trypanosomosis. Significant (P <0.01) higher lactose concentrations were observed in the T. vivax-intecled bulls at 30 min and 1h (P< 0.05) post-infectio (p.i.) and by 4 h p.i. the plasma lactose remained above the level prior to infusion, after which it fell slightly below the preinfusion level in the uninfected group. Calculated pharmacokinetic parameters revealed delayed excretion of lactose in the T. vivax-intected group soon after infection. The total body clearance (C/B )was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced. The biological half-life (t1/2), elimination rate constant (kel) and apparent volume of distribution (Vd) were relatively decreased (P > 0.05) as a result of the T. vivax infection. Retention of lactose in the plasma was attributed to decreased plasma clearance l.t is suggested that the presence of trypanosomes in circulation rather than organic lesions could have been responsible for the delay observed in the excretion of lactose. At 12 weeks p.i., when the experiment was terminated, the group infected and given lactose infusion (despiteh igherp arasitaemia) had no gross or histopathological lesions in the brain, spleen, lymphnodes, heart, kidneys, liver and testes. However, the group infected but not infused with lactose were emaciated, had pale mucosae, watery blood, general muscular atrophy, serous atrophy of coronary fat and other adiposet issue, hepatomegalys, plenomegalys, wollen and oedematous lymph nodes, all of which are suggestive of trypanosomosis. Histopathological lesions included arrowing of Bowman's space and hypercellularity of glomerular tufts in the kidneys with the mean glomerula truft nucleairn dices (GTNs) in the group significantly higher (P <0.01)than the mean GTNs of the lactoseinfused and control bulls. Degenerative changes occurred in the myocardium, spleen, testes and epididymides. The tesicular and epididymal lesions are indicative of male reproductive dysfunction.

This work reports the first molecular analysis study of chicken anaemia virus (CAV) in backyard chickens in Africa using molecular cloning and sequence analysis to characterize CAV strains obtained from commercial chickens and Nigerian backyard chickens. Partial VP1 gene sequences were determined for three CAVs from commercial chickens and for six CAV variants present in samples from a backyard chicken. Multiple alignment analysis revealed that the 6 % and 4 % nucleotide diversity obtained respectively for the commercial and backyard chicken strains translated to only 2 % amino acid diversity for each breed. Overall, the amino acid composition of Nigerian CAVs was found to be highly conserved. Since the partial VP1 gene sequence of two backyard chicken cloned CAV strains (NGR/Cl-8 and NGR/Cl-9) were almost identical and evolutionarily closely related to the commercial chicken strains NGR-1, and NGR-4 and NGR-5, respectively, we concluded that CAV infections had crossed the farm boundary.

This work reports the first molecular analysis study of chicken anaemia virus (CAV) in backyard chickens in Africa using molecular cloning and sequence analysis to characterize CAV strains obtained from commercial chickens and Nigerian backyard chickens. Partial VP1 gene sequences were determined for three CAVs from commercial chickens and for six CAV variants present in samples from a backyard chicken. Multiple alignment analysis revealed that the 6 % and 4 % nucleotide diversity obtained respectively for the commercial and backyard chicken strains translated to only 2 % amino acid diversity for each breed. Overall, the amino acid composition of Nigerian CAVs was found to be highly conserved. Since the partial VP1 gene sequence of two backyard chicken cloned CAV strains (NGR/Cl-8 and NGR/Cl-9) were almost identical and evolutionarily closely related to the commercial chicken strains NGR-1, and NGR-4 and NGR-5, respectively, we concluded that CAV infections had crossed the farm boundary.

The ability of intravenously administered lactose in normal saline to prevent a decline in packed cell volume (PCV) during experimental trypanosomosis was studied in Zebu cattle. During the lactose infusion period, the PCV was stable up to Day 5 post-infection (p.i.) in a lactose-infused group, compared to that in an uninfused group in which the PCV dropped significantly (P 0.05) as shown by the values of cumulative percentage change. Furthermore the mean rate of change in PCV was significantly (P 0.05) higher in the uninfused group relative to the lactose-infused group during the same period. While the PCV fell markedly in the lactose-infused group a day after lactose infusion was stopped (Day 13 p.i.), subsequent PCV values were significantly (P 0.05) higher compared to those in the uninfused group, up to the end of experiment on Day 17 p.i. However the mean rates of change in PCV did not vary significantly (P 0.05) between the groups during the period in which lactose infusion was stopped. The mean levels of parasitaemic waves and parasitaemia were higher, more prolonged and more frequent in the lactose-infused group. It was inferred that the lactose was able to prevent an early onset of anaemia in the Trypanosoma vivax-infected Zebu cattle.

The ability of intravenously administered lactose in normal saline to prevent a decline in packed cell volume (PCV) during experimental trypanosomosis was studied in Zebu cattle. During the lactose infusion period, the PCV was stable up to Day 5 post-infection (p.i.) in a lactose-infused group, compared to that in an uninfused group in which the PCV dropped significantly (P < 0.05) as shown by the values of cumulative percentage change. Furthermore the mean rate of change in PCV was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the uninfused group relative to the lactose-infused group during the same period. While the PCV fell markedly in the lactose-infused group a day after lactose infusion was stopped (Day 13 p.i.), subsequent PCV values were significantly (P < 0.05) higher compared to those in the uninfused group, up to the end of experiment on Day 17 p.i. However the mean rates of change in PCV did not vary significantly (P > 0.05) between the groups during the period in which lactose infusion was stopped. The mean levels of parasitaemic waves and parasitaemia were higher, more prolonged and more frequent in the lactose-infused group. It was inferred that the lactose was able to prevent an early onset of anaemia in the Trypanosoma vivax-infected Zebu cattle.

The present study investigated the distribution of nerves in the ovary of the emu. The neuronal markers, protein gene product 9.5, neurofilament protein and neuron specific enolase demonstrated the constituents of the extrinsic and intrinsic ovarian neural systems. The extrinsic neural system was composed of ganglia in the ovarian stalk, as well as nerve bundles, which were distributed throughout the ovary. Isolated neuronal cell bodies, in the medulla and cortex, formed the intrinsic neural system. An interesting finding of the study was the presence of nerve bundles, circumscribed by lymphocytes, in the ovarian stalk. The findings of the study indicate that the distribution of nerve fibres and neuronal cell bodies in the emu ovary is similar, but not identical to that of the domestic fowl and ostrich.

The present study investigated the distribution of nerves in the ovary of the emu. The neuronal markers, protein gene product 9.5, neurofilament protein and neuron specific enolase demonstrated the constituents of the extrinsic and intrinsic ovarian neural systems. The extrinsic neural system was composed of ganglia in the ovarian stalk, as well as nerve bundles, which were distributed throughout the ovary. Isolated neuronal cell bodies, in the medulla and cortex, formed the intrinsic neural system. An interesting finding of the study was the presence of nerve bundles, circumscribed by lymphocytes, in the ovarian stalk. The findings of the study indicate that the distribution of nerve fibres and neuronal cell bodies in the emu ovary is similar, but not identical to that of the domestic fowl and ostrich.