Rabies cases are widespread worldwide and mostly prevalence in develeloping countries. Several Province in Indonesia are still categorized as endemic rabies, including the Province of North Sumatera. This research was aimed to evaluate the role of external factors that could influence in reduction the rabies suspected cases in the population of the City of Medan. The survey was conducted using a structured questionnaire. A Case-Control Design was used in this study. The two groups were rabies suspected case and rabies unsuspected case (control), consisted both male and female respondents. All the population involved in this study were living in the City of Medan. Primary and secondary data were collected usingpurposive samplingapproach. Data were analysed by univariate analysis, bivariate analysis, and multivariate analysis. The result was obtained the ratio of 1:2 between rabies suspected case (64 cases) and rabies unsuspected case (128 cases) in the City of Medan. The bivariate analysis showed the significant influence of the role of livestock department officer, role of health worker, role of community leader and vaccination tools on the rabies suspected case (P0.05). Multivariate analysis showed that the dominant variable which affect the rabis suspected case was rabies vaccine tools.

Rabies cases are widespread worldwide and mostly prevalence in develeloping countries. Several Province in Indonesia are still categorized as endemic rabies, including the Province of North Sumatera. This research was aimed to evaluate the role of external factors that could influence in reduction the rabies suspected cases in the population of the City of Medan. The survey was conducted using a structured questionnaire. A Case-Control Design was used in this study. The two groups were rabies suspected case and rabies unsuspected case (control), consisted both male and female respondents. All the population involved in this study were living in the City of Medan. Primary and secondary data were collected using purposive sampling approach. Data were analysed by univariate analysis, bivariate analysis, and multivariate analysis. The result was obtained the ratio of 1:2 between rabies suspected case (64 cases) and rabies unsuspected case (128 cases) in the City of Medan. The bivariate analysis showed the significant influence of the role of livestock department officer, role of health worker, role of community leader and vaccination tools on the rabies suspected case (P0.05). Multivariate analysis showed that the dominant variable which affect the rabis suspected case was rabies vaccine tools.

Interprofessional Education (IPE)is considered an educational strategy that has potential benefit forimproving teamwork and collaboration in practice, leading to improved patient outcomes. As the development and implementation of curricula that integrate IPE requires significant resources, its adoption should be based on evidence of effectiveness. The purpose of this literature review is to identify what constitutes effective interprofessional education amongst health related disciplines. A literature search was conducted using Science Direct, BMC, Elsevier and Joint Commission Journal for the years 2009-2018. A total of 15 studies met the established inclusion criteria. The use of IPE among health related disciplines is one effective way to solve several problems, and its particularly improves patient safety. What constitutes effective interprofessional education amongst health related disciplines are possibly viewed from some aspects, such as efficiency, effectiveness, learning strategy, power, patient and learner safety and readiness to practice, interprofessional curriculum, roles and relationships, and learning outcomes.

Interprofessional Education (IPE) is considered an educational strategy that has potential benefit for improving teamwork and collaboration in practice, leading to improved patient outcomes. As the development and implementation of curricula that integrate IPE requires significant resources, its adoption should be based on evidence of effectiveness. The purpose of this literature review is to identify what constitutes effective interprofessional education amongst health related disciplines. A literature search was conducted using Science Direct, BMC, Elsevier and Joint Commission Journal for the years 2009-2018. A total of 15 studies met the established inclusion criteria. The use of IPE among health related disciplines is one effective way to solve several problems, and its particularly improves patient safety. What constitutes effective interprofessional education amongst health related disciplines are possibly viewed from some aspects, such as efficiency, effectiveness, learning strategy, power, patient and learner safety and readiness to practice, interprofessional curriculum, roles and relationships, and learning outcomes.

Clove oil is distilled from clove flowers (Syzigium aromaticum) and characterized by physical properties and GC-MS. Distillation was carried out by steam distillation method for 8 hours. Analysis of clove oil was carried out by GC-MS method. The distillation results obtained 163 mL of clove oil with physical properties that meet the requirements of SNI 06-4267-1996. The results of the analysis using GC-MS showed that clove oil contained 6 components, namely, Eugenol 88.20%, Alpha Copaene 0.49%, Caryophyllene 3.77%, Alpha Humulene 0.48%, Eugenyl acetate 6.76%, and Caryophyllene Oxide 0.30%. Another fact shows that clove flower oil has anthelmintic activity.

Clove oil is distilled from clove flowers (Syzigium aromaticum) and characterized by physical properties and GC-MS. Distillation was carried out by steam distillation method for 8 hours. Analysis of clove oil was carried out by GC-MS method. The distillation results obtained 163 mL of clove oil with physical properties that meet the requirements of SNI 06-4267-1996. The results of the analysis using GC-MS showed that clove oil contained 6 components, namely, Eugenol 88.20%, Alpha Copaene 0.49%, Caryophyllene 3.77%, Alpha Humulene 0.48%, Eugenyl acetate 6.76%, and Caryophyllene Oxide 0.30%. Another fact shows that clove flower oil has anthelmintic activity.

The presence of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and histamine in foodstuffs indicate the level of deterioration in the quality of food and cause poisoning.Sie Baluis the Acehnese dried meat preserved by the addition of salt, acid and dried, but the long processing and drying it under the sun can cause microbial contamination in meat products. Irradiation can eliminate bacteria in foodstuffs. This study aimed to determine the amount of LAB and histamine levels ofSie Baluafter irradiation doses of 5, 7 and 9 kGy and stored 2 to 4 months.Sie Baluwas made of fresh beef 5 kg, dried in the sun to dry, vacuumed and irradiated with gamma rays. The samples for LAB determination cultured in MRS agar and incubated at 37C for 24 hours. The number of colonies was counted using Total Plate Count. The histamine level ofSie Baluconducted by ELISA. Irradiation did not significantly (P0.05) affect the amount of LAB, but the shelf life significantly (P0.05) affected the amount of LAB inSie Balu. Extending the shelf life up to 4 months can increase the amount of LAB. Irradiation dose and shelf life had no effect on histamine levels ofSie Balu(P0.05). This study concluded that irradiatedSie Balucannot be stored for more than two months.

The presence of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and histamine in foodstuffs indicate the level of deterioration in the quality of food and cause poisoning. Sie Balu is the Acehnese dried meat preserved by the addition of salt, acid and dried, but the long processing and drying it under the sun can cause microbial contamination in meat products. Irradiation can eliminate bacteria in foodstuffs. This study aimed to determine the amount of LAB and histamine levels of Sie Balu after irradiation doses of 5, 7 and 9 kGy and stored 2 to 4 months. Sie Balu was made of fresh beef 5 kg, dried in the sun to dry, vacuumed and irradiated with gamma rays. The samples for LAB determination cultured in MRS agar and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. The number of colonies was counted using Total Plate Count. The histamine level of Sie Balu conducted by ELISA. Irradiation did not significantly (P0.05) affect the amount of LAB, but the shelf life significantly (P0.05) affected the amount of LAB in Sie Balu. Extending the shelf life up to 4 months can increase the amount of LAB. Irradiation dose and shelf life had no effect on histamine levels of Sie Balu (P0.05). This study concluded that irradiated Sie Balu cannot be stored for more than two months.

This study aimed to study the effect of antibiotic on phospholipase production ofStaphylococcus aureusisolated from preputium of Aceh cattle. The parameters measured in this study were PzI ofStaphylococcus aureuswithout any treatment, and PzI ofS. aureusafter being given antibiotics. The experiment was carried out by modifying the Samaranayake method on egg yolk agar media, incubated at 37 C for 48 hours, and the precipitation lines formed was measured. The antibiotics used were tetracycline, oxytetracycline and fosfomycin with concentrations of 10%, 20% and 30% (mg / mL, respectively). The results showed that phospholipase production ofS. aureusisolated from preputium of Aceh cattle was suppressed, antibiotics were able to inhibit phospholipase production. However, the enzyme was still produced in positive category, with PzI = 0.287, the highest result was found in 30% tetracycline activity, which is equal to PzI = 0.341 and the lowest was in 10% fosfomycin which is equal to PzI = 0.332

This study aimed to study the effect of antibiotic on phospholipase production of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from preputium of Aceh cattle. The parameters measured in this study were PzI of Staphylococcus aureus without any treatment, and PzI of S. aureus after being given antibiotics. The experiment was carried out by modifying the Samaranayake method on egg yolk agar media, incubated at 37 ° C for 48 hours, and the precipitation lines formed was measured. The antibiotics used were tetracycline, oxytetracycline and fosfomycin with concentrations of 10%, 20% and 30% (mg / mL, respectively). The results showed that phospholipase production of S. aureus isolated from preputium of Aceh cattle was suppressed, antibiotics were able to inhibit phospholipase production. However, the enzyme was still produced in positive category, with PzI = 0.287, the highest result was found in 30% tetracycline activity, which is equal to PzI = 0.341 and the lowest was in 10% fosfomycin which is equal to PzI = 0.332

Background: Giardia and Cryptosporidium species are significant zoonotic parasites of humans and domesticated animals. Objectives: The study aimed to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in livestock and dogs of the Magude District. Method: The flotation technique (Willis), modified Ziehl-Neelsen (mZN) and direct and indirect immunofluorescence (DIF and IIF) techniques were applied to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium species in faecal samples of dog pups (156), goat kids (60) and calves (480) from the Magude District of Mozambique from February to September 2015. Results: Using Willis, IIF and DIF, the prevalence of Giardia in calves was 0%, 8.1%, and 6.0%; in dogs 0.6%, 8.3% and 5.7% and for goats 0% and 13.3% (IIF was not performed), respectively. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in calves using Willis, mZN, IIF and DIF was 0%, 3.8%, 4.7% and 0.4% and in dogs 0%, 0.6%, 6.4% and 0.6%, respectively. The parasite was not detected in goats. Conclusion: Results from the present study showed that IIF performed better diagnosis of Giardia and Cryptosporidium, and that the mZN can be used as an alternative for Cryptosporidium because of the high cost of IIF. There is a need for identification of genotypes or subtypes of these parasites through application of molecular techniques in order to determine their zoonotic potential, and we advocate a ‘one health’ approach in the control and prevention of these parasites.

Background: Giardia and Cryptosporidium species are significant zoonotic parasites of humans and domesticated animals.Objectives: The study aimed to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in livestock and dogs of the Magude District.Method: The flotation technique (Willis), modified Ziehl-Neelsen (mZN) and direct and indirect immunofluorescence (DIF and IIF) techniques were applied to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium species in faecal samples of dog pups (156), goat kids (60) and calves (480) from the Magude District of Mozambique from February to September 2015.Results: Using Willis, IIF and DIF, the prevalence of Giardia in calves was 0%, 8.1%, and 6.0%; in dogs 0.6%, 8.3% and 5.7% and for goats 0% and 13.3% (IIF was not performed), respectively. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in calves using Willis, mZN, IIF and DIF was 0%, 3.8%, 4.7% and 0.4% and in dogs 0%, 0.6%, 6.4% and 0.6%, respectively. The parasite was not detected in goats.Conclusion: Results from the present study showed that IIF performed better diagnosis of Giardia and Cryptosporidium, and that the mZN can be used as an alternative for Cryptosporidium because of the high cost of IIF. There is a need for identification of genotypes or subtypes of these parasites through application of molecular techniques in order to determine their zoonotic potential, and we advocate a ‘one health’ approach in the control and prevention of these parasites.

Fasciola spp. are the causative agents of fascioliasis in humans and livestock. Before the development of control and management measures, the geographical distribution of the species and patterns of infection must be considered. Because of difficulties in the phenotypic differentiation and morphometric classification of Fasciola spp., DNA molecular markers have become more useful for fluke differentiation and description of phylogenetic patterns. This study aimed to differentiate and describe the phylogenetic background of Fasciola spp. isolated from cattle slaughtered at three abattoirs in the Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa. The cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) – FHCO1 (forward: 5′-TTGGTTTTTTGGGCATCCT-3′) and FHCO1 (reverse: 5′ -AGGCCACCACCAAATAAAAGA3′) – marker was sequenced from 55 Fasciola flukes that were collected from abattoirs in catchment areas of the KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces. Fasciola hepatica was demonstrated to have 100% prevalence in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga (highveld), respectively, and 76% prevalence in the lowveld (Belfast area) of Mpumalanga. Two animals from the Belfast metapopulation were co-infected with both Fasciola gigantica and F. hepatica. DNA sequence analysis of all the isolates demonstrated a sequence conservation of 0.472, nucleotide diversity of 0.082 and Tajima’s D of -1.100; however, it was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Twenty-two haplotypes were identified, with 18 novel haplotypes being unique to the isolates from South Africa. Within the study samples, 12 haplotypes were isolated to a few individuals, with a haplotype diversity of 0.8957 indicating high genetic diversity. Principal coordinate analysis supported the clustering and distribution of the haplotypes, with 11.38% of the variation being attributed to coordinate 2 and 55.52% to coordinate 1. The distribution of Fasciola spp. has been demonstrated to be related to the distribution of the freshwater intermediate host snails, Lymnaea spp., as well as the relative altitude of the localities in South Africa. Information provided by this study serves as preliminary evidence for further studies on the mapping of the distribution of F. gigantica and F. hepatica in South Africa, which is key in designing control programmes for fascioliasis in humans and livestock.

Fasciola spp. are the causative agents of fascioliasis in humans and livestock. Before the development of control and management measures, the geographical distribution of the species and patterns of infection must be considered. Because of difficulties in the phenotypic differentiation and morphometric classification of Fasciola spp., DNA molecular markers have become more useful for fluke differentiation and description of phylogenetic patterns. This study aimed to differentiate and describe the phylogenetic background of Fasciola spp. isolated from cattle slaughtered at three abattoirs in the Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa. The cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) – FHCO1 (forward: 5′-TTGGTTTTTTGGGCATCCT-3′) and FHCO1 (reverse: 5′ -AGGCCACCACCAAATAAAAGA3′) – marker was sequenced from 55 Fasciola flukes that were collected from abattoirs in catchment areas of the KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces. Fasciola hepatica was demonstrated to have 100% prevalence in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga (highveld), respectively, and 76% prevalence in the lowveld (Belfast area) of Mpumalanga. Two animals from the Belfast metapopulation were co-infected with both Fasciola gigantica and F. hepatica. DNA sequence analysis of all the isolates demonstrated a sequence conservation of 0.472, nucleotide diversity of 0.082 and Tajima’s D of -1.100; however, it was not statistically significant (p  0.05). Twenty-two haplotypes were identified, with 18 novel haplotypes being unique to the isolates from South Africa. Within the study samples, 12 haplotypes were isolated to a few individuals, with a haplotype diversity of 0.8957 indicating high genetic diversity. Principal coordinate analysis supported the clustering and distribution of the haplotypes, with 11.38% of the variation being attributed to coordinate 2 and 55.52% to coordinate 1. The distribution of Fasciola spp. has been demonstrated to be related to the distribution of the freshwater intermediate host snails, Lymnaea spp., as well as the relative altitude of the localities in South Africa. Information provided by this study serves as preliminary evidence for further studies on the mapping of the distribution of F. gigantica and F. hepatica in South Africa, which is key in designing control programmes for fascioliasis in humans and livestock.

Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) caused by Theileria, Babesia, Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species are common in tropical and subtropical regions. In this study, we investigated the presence and genetic diversity of Theileria spp., Anaplasma ovis, B. ovis, E. ruminantium and Anaplasma spp. in sheep from the Machakos and Homa Bay counties of Kenya. In order to improve the diagnosis and control of ovine TBDs, a total of 76 blood samples from apparently healthy sheep were screened using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The assays were conducted using primers based on Theileria spp. 18S rRNA, Anaplasma ovis Major surface protein-4 (AoMSP4), B. ovis 18S rRNA, E. ruminantium pCS20 and Anaplasma spp. 16S rRNA. The overall infection rates for Theileria spp., A. ovis, E. ruminantium and Anaplasma spp. were 39/76 (51.3%), 26/76 (34.2%), 6/76 (7.9%) and 31/76 (40.8%), respectively. The overall co-infection was 47/76 (61.8%). All Theileria spp. positive samples were confirmed to be of Theileria ovis on sequencing. A phylogenetic analysis of the 18S rRNA gene sequences of T. ovis revealed that all isolates of this study clustered with T. ovis sequences extracted from the GenBank suggesting this gene is highly conserved. E. ruminantium pCS20 sequences were in the same clade on the phylogenetic tree. However, three AoMSP4 sequences from this study appeared in the same clade, while one sequence formed a separate branch revealing genetic divergence. The 16S rRNA sequencing revealed uncharacterised Anaplasma spp. and A. ovis. The phylogenetic analyses of the uncharacterised Anaplasma spp. revealed that the two sequences from this study appear in an independent clade from other sequences extracted from the GenBank. This study provides important information regarding the occurrence of tick-borne pathogens and their degree of genetic diversity among sheep in Kenya, which is useful for the diagnosis and control of TBDs.

Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) caused by Theileria, Babesia, Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species are common in tropical and subtropical regions. In this study, we investigated the presence and genetic diversity of Theileria spp., Anaplasma ovis, B. ovis, E. ruminantium and Anaplasma spp. in sheep from the Machakos and Homa Bay counties of Kenya. In order to improve the diagnosis and control of ovine TBDs, a total of 76 blood samples from apparently healthy sheep were screened using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The assays were conducted using primers based on Theileria spp. 18S rRNA, Anaplasma ovis Major surface protein-4 (AoMSP4), B. ovis 18S rRNA, E. ruminantium pCS20 and Anaplasma spp. 16S rRNA. The overall infection rates for Theileria spp., A. ovis, E. ruminantium and Anaplasma spp. were 39/76 (51.3%), 26/76 (34.2%), 6/76 (7.9%) and 31/76 (40.8%), respectively. The overall co-infection was 47/76 (61.8%). All Theileria spp. positive samples were confirmed to be of Theileria ovis on sequencing. A phylogenetic analysis of the 18S rRNA gene sequences of T. ovis revealed that all isolates of this study clustered with T. ovis sequences extracted from the GenBank suggesting this gene is highly conserved. E. ruminantium pCS20 sequences were in the same clade on the phylogenetic tree. However, three AoMSP4 sequences from this study appeared in the same clade, while one sequence formed a separate branch revealing genetic divergence. The 16S rRNA sequencing revealed uncharacterised Anaplasma spp. and A. ovis. The phylogenetic analyses of the uncharacterised Anaplasma spp. revealed that the two sequences from this study appear in an independent clade from other sequences extracted from the GenBank. This study provides important information regarding the occurrence of tick-borne pathogens and their degree of genetic diversity among sheep in Kenya, which is useful for the diagnosis and control of TBDs.

Vaccination of domestic ruminants is considered to be an effective strategy for protecting these animals against Rift Valley fever (RVF), but available vaccines have limitations. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the safety and immunogenicity of RVF virus (RVFV) mutagenesis passage 12 (MP-12) and arMP-12ΔNSm21/384 vaccine candidates in goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) in Tanzania. Goats were vaccinated intramuscularly with RVFV MP-12 or arMP-12ΔNSm21/384, and then on Day 87 post-vaccination (PV) all animals were revaccinated using the RVFV MP-12 vaccine candidate. Serum samples were collected from the animals before and after vaccination at various intervals to test for RVFV using a Vero cell culture assay and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and for RVFV-neutralising antibody using a plaque reduction neutralisation assay. Serum samples collected before vaccination on Days -14 and 0, and on Days 3, 4 and 5 PV were negative for RVFV and neutralising antibody. All animals remained healthy, and viremia was not detected in any of the animals. Rift Valley fever virus antibody was first detected on Day 5 PV at a 1:10 dilution in five of five animals vaccinated with the MP-12 vaccine and in five of eight animals vaccinated with arMP-12ΔNSm21/384. Titres then increased and were sustained at 1:40 to 1:640 through to Day 87 PV. All animals that were revaccinated on Day 87 PV with MP-12 developed antibody titres ranging from 1:160 to as high as 1:10 240 on Days 14 and 21 PV. Although the antibody titres for goats vaccinated with RVF MP-12 were slightly higher than titres elicited by the arMP-12ΔNSm21/384 vaccine, these findings demonstrated that both vaccines are promising candidates for the prevention of RVF among Tansanian goats.

Vaccination of domestic ruminants is considered to be an effective strategy for protecting these animals against Rift Valley fever (RVF), but available vaccines have limitations. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the safety and immunogenicity of RVF virus (RVFV) mutagenesis passage 12 (MP-12) and arMP-12ΔNSm21/384 vaccine candidates in goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) in Tanzania. Goats were vaccinated intramuscularly with RVFV MP-12 or arMP-12ΔNSm21/384, and then on Day 87 post-vaccination (PV) all animals were revaccinated using the RVFV MP-12 vaccine candidate. Serum samples were collected from the animals before and after vaccination at various intervals to test for RVFV using a Vero cell culture assay and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and for RVFV-neutralising antibody using a plaque reduction neutralisation assay. Serum samples collected before vaccination on Days -14 and 0, and on Days 3, 4 and 5 PV were negative for RVFV and neutralising antibody. All animals remained healthy, and viremia was not detected in any of the animals. Rift Valley fever virus antibody was first detected on Day 5 PV at a 1:10 dilution in five of five animals vaccinated with the MP-12 vaccine and in five of eight animals vaccinated with arMP-12ΔNSm21/384. Titres then increased and were sustained at 1:40 to 1:640 through to Day 87 PV. All animals that were revaccinated on Day 87 PV with MP-12 developed antibody titres ranging from 1:160 to as high as 1:10 240 on Days 14 and 21 PV. Although the antibody titres for goats vaccinated with RVF MP-12 were slightly higher than titres elicited by the arMP-12ΔNSm21/384 vaccine, these findings demonstrated that both vaccines are promising candidates for the prevention of RVF among Tansanian goats.