Infectious and zoonotic disease outbreaks have been linked to increasing volumes of legal and illegal trade. Spatio-temporal and trade network analyses have been used to evaluate the risks associated with these challenges elsewhere, but few details are available for the pig sector in South Africa. Regarding pig diseases, Limpopo province is important as the greater part of the province falls within the African swine fever control area. Emerging small-scale pig farmers in Limpopo perceived pig production as an important means of improving their livelihood and an alternative investment. They engage in trading and marketing their products with a potential risk to animal health, because the preferred markets often facilitate potential longdistance spread and disease dispersal over broad geographic areas. In this study, we explored the interconnectedness of smallholder pig farmers in Limpopo, determined the weaknesses and critical control points, and projected interventions that policy makers can implement to reduce the risks to pig health. The geo-coordinates of surveyed farms were used to draw maps, links and networks. Predictive risks to pigs were determined through the analyses of trade networks, and the relationship to previous outbreaks of African swine fever was postulated. Auction points were identified as high-risk areas for the spread of animal diseases. Veterinary authorities should prioritise focused surveillance and diagnostic efforts in Limpopo. Early disease detection and prompt eradication should be targeted and messages promoting enhanced biosecurity to smallholder farmers are advocated. The system may also benefit from the restructuring of marketing and auction networks. Since geographic factors and networks can rapidly facilitate pig disease dispersal over large areas, a multi-disciplinary approach to understanding the complexities that exist around the animal disease epidemiology becomes mandatory.

A study was conducted on 240 scavenging chickens randomly obtained from various districts from the state of Penang, Peninsular Malaysia. The chickens were closely examined for visible ectoparasites in the laboratory. The ectoparasites were collected using a blunt forceps and stored in universal bottles containing 70% ethanol. Ten species of ectoparasites were noted which consisted of five species of lice, two species of mites, two species of ticks and one species of chigger. The lice identifi ed were Menopon gallinae, Menacanthus pallidulus, Lipeurus caponis, Goniocotes gallinae and Goniodes dissimilis. These lice occurred in the fl uff of the feathers of the body especially the neck, back, abdomen and wings. The mites were Megninia sp. and Pterolichus sp. Examinations of the ears and combs revealed Haemaphysalis sp., the hard tick. Meanwhile, Ornithonyssus sp., the soft tick was found on feathers, whereas chigger, Leptotrombidium sp. was found attached to the skins. The study also revealed that M. gallinae was the most common ectoparasite with 76.7% occurrence, followed by Pterolichus sp. (69.6%), L. caponis (63.3%), M. pallidulus (41.7%), Leptotrombidium sp. (17.5%), G. gallinae (9.5%), Haemaphysalis sp. (6.7%), Megninia sp. (3.8%) and Ornithonyssus sp. (3.8%). The least common ectoparasite was G. dissimilis occurring in 2.1% of the chickens.

The aim of this study was to investigate the bacteria found in different parts of the genital system in cows and the susceptibility to different types of antibiotics. The genital systems of sixteen cows were collected from Al-Hilla, Iraq slaughterhouse. Isolation and identification of bacteria were made for each part of the genital system and antibiotic susceptibility tests was conducted to the isolated bacteria. The results of this study indicated that there were several types of bacteria present in the genital systems of cows. Different species of bacteria were isolated from the samples including, Escherichia coli (28.97)%, Klebsiella spp. (16.82)%, Salmonella spp. (14.95)%, Proteus spp. (13.08)%, Staphylococcus aureus (11.21)%, Staphylococcus epidermidis (8.41)% and Streptococcus spp. (6.54)%. In vitro susceptibility towards different types of antibiotic indicated high susceptibility of Escherichia coli to antibiotic group impenem and ciprofloxacin, while Klebsiella spp. was found to be most susceptible to ciprofloxacin and amikacin. Both Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. showed resistance to piperacillin and tetracycline. It was concluded that Escherichia coli was the most predominant bacteria in genital system of cows and were most susceptible to antibiotic impenem and ciprofloxacin.

Histopathological changes were studied in Swiss albino mice (N:36)which were challenged with the South Indian local strain of Trypanosoma evansi. Each animal was infected with 5×105 trypanosomes intraperitoneally. The animals were examined daily for development of clinical signs and infection status by wet blood-films made from the tail veins. The infected mice were dull and depressed from two days post-infection (DPI) onwards. Systematic post-mortem examination of the infected mice was performed and pathological changes were recorded. The different tissue samples were collected in 10% formalin and were used to study the histopathological changes. Postmortem examination from 3-4 DPI (the maximum period of observation) revealed splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, marked congestion of lungs, presence of fl uid in peritoneal cavity. Histopathologically, heart muscles showed hyaline degenerative changes and haemorrhages. Liver parenchyma revealed congestion of central vein and sinusoids, binucleated hepatocytes and fatty change of hepatic cells. Thickening of interstitial space with mononuclear infiltration, areas of collapse, areas of emphysema, edema and dilated and congested blood vessels were the histopathological changes noticed in the lungs of the infected mice. In the spleen, giant cells aggregation, hyperplasia, thickening of capsule and trabecule were the changes indicating irreversible degeneration. The affected kidney showed inter-tubular hemorrhages in the cortex, medullary hemorrhages, congested glomerulus, atrophied glomerulus, desquamated tubular epithelium and disruption of renal tubules at some places.

Many parasitology laboratories practiced the McMaster technique as a method in obtaining the quantitative diagnosis of Strongyle eggs burden in farm animals especially ruminants. The McMaster technique also play a crucial role in faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) for anthelmintic resistance identification. Some laboratoriesrecommend two-chamber counting method while some recommend single chamber counting method. This study focuses on the comparison between single and double counting in McMaster technique fordetection of Strongyle egg count. In this study, it is shown that there is no significant difference between both methods basedon the p-value obtained which is p>0.05 from 127 fresh goat faecal samples. The techniques practised during the study follow the standard established technique. Single chamber counting is suitable for a large number of faecal samples from big herds because it is faster, less laborious and produces sensitive and reliable results in Strongyle egg count. As more commercial farms are set up, there is a need to conduct a fast and efficient test to help farmers evaluate their livestock worm burden.

The Kedah-Kelantan cattle (KK) is an indigenous cattle breed and is mainly kept for meat production in Malaysia. Due to lack of information about polymorphism of growth traits in these cattle, Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) was chosen to be the candidate gene in this preliminary study. The aim of this study is to investigate the polymorphism of IGF-1 gene in KK and to show that the PCR-RFLP technique can be used as a basis for use as molecular markers in cattle. A total of 46 KK blood samples were collected for DNA extraction performed using a commercial kit. The exon 1 of IGF-1 gene was amplified to produce a 249 bp fragment. The amplified fragments were digested with Eco105I restriction endonuclease and then subjected to electrophoretic separation in Fluorosafe stained 2.5 % agarose gel. The result revealed two alleles, A and B. Threegenotypes were observed: AA, AB and BB. Frequencies were 0.07, 0.13 and 0.80 for AA, AB and BB, respectively. This gives frequencies of 0.13 and 0.87 for A and B alleles. It is concluded that the population is in Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium (p<0.05). It is possible that this gene has been exposed to selection.

A study was conducted on 16 commercial free range chickens (8 malesand 8 females) sourced from Alor Setar, Kedah in order to determine the prevalence of ecto and endoparasites. Results showed that there were 12 different species of ectoand endoparasites from these chickens. Four (4) species of ectoparasites which consist of three lice and a tick have been discovered. The highest prevalence of ectoparasite was Menopon gallinae (93.8%). The other ectoparasites were Menacanthus pallidulus (81.3%), Haemaphysalis sp. (37.5%) and Lipeurus caponis (18.8%). On the other hand, eight species of endoparasites which consist of four nematodes and four cestodes were discovered. Rallietina echinobothrida showed the highest prevalence of endoparasite (100%) followed by Heterakis gallinarum (93.8%), Acuaria spiralis (87.5%), Ascaria galli (81.3%), Rallietina tetragona(43.8%), Gongylonema ingluvicola (37.5%), Hymenolepis carioca (12.5%)and Hymenolepis cantiana (12.5%). Endoparasites infestation was recorded highest on male chicken (52.6%) compared to female (47.4%). However, there was no statistically significant difference betweenthe number of endoparasites and both sexes; t (14) = 0.817, p>0.05.