Mercury pollution is an issue of global concern. In Colombia, the use of contaminated water for food crop irrigation and artisanal mining contributes to mercury pollution in soil, affecting food production and restoration of disturbed areas. Mycorrhizal fungi are symbionts that provide benefits to plants including resistance to heavy metals, but fungal effects on germination remain to be fully described. This study tested the effect of mercury and mycorrhizal fungi on Lactuca sativa seed germination. A 2x5 completely randomized factorial experiment was developed to assess the effect of five HgCl2 polluted treatments, two mycorrhizal treatments (i.e., with inoculum, without inoculum), and the interaction of both factors on seed germination, seedling root colonization, pH, and final water content. In samples with no mercury pollution, mycorrhizal fungi had an inhibitory effect on seed germination. Likewise, the effect of mercury on seed germination is significantly inhibitory. However, pots inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi showed constant germination probabilities, independently of mercury concentration. According to the best model determined for the data, a key step in the mitigation of mercury toxicity in seed germination is to prevent substrate pH changes. The environmental conditions of the experiment contributed to densely activate populated biomass of inoculum, which promoted root invasion from various points. Overall, the presence of mycorrhizal fungi in seedbeds could lead to a reduced number of plant individuals. However, the use of fungal inoculum in polluted environments, highly contributes to plant establishment, which is relevant in further vegetable cultivations growing in soil polluted areas.

Being signaling molecules, nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) can mediate a wide range of physiological processes caused by plant metal toxicity. Moreover, legume-rhizobium symbiosis has gained increasing attention in mitigating heavy metal stress. However, systematic regulatory mechanisms used for the exogenous application of signaling molecules to alter the resistance of legume-rhizobium symbiosis under metal stress are currently unknown. In this study, we examined the exogenous effects of sodium nitroprusside (SNP) as an NO donor additive and sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS) as a H₂S donor additive on the phytotoxicity and soil quality of alfalfa (Medicago sativa)-rhizobium symbiosis in lead/cadmium (Pb/Cd)-contaminated soils. Results showed that rhizobia inoculation markedly promoted alfalfa growth by increasing chlorophyll content, fresh weight, and plant height and biomass. Compared to the inoculated rhizobia treatment alone, the addition of NO and H₂S significantly reduced the bioaccumulation of Pb and Cd in alfalfa-rhizobium symbiosis, respectively, thus avoiding the phytotoxicity caused by the excessive presence of metals. The addition of signaling molecules also alleviated metal-induced phytotoxicity by increasing antioxidant enzyme activity and inhibiting the level of lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in legume-rhizobium symbiosis. Also, signaling molecules improved soil nutrient cycling, increased soil enzyme activities, and promoted rhizosphere bacterial community diversity. Both partial least squares path modeling (PLS-PM) and variation partitioning analysis (VPA) identified that using signaling molecules can improve plant growth by regulating major controlling variables (i.e., soil enzymes, soil nutrients, and microbial diversity/plant oxidative damage) in legume-rhizobium symbiosis. This study offers integrated insight that confirms that the exogenous application of signaling molecules can enhance the resistance of legume-rhizobium symbiosis under metal toxicity by regulating the biochemical response of the plant-soil system, thereby minimizing potential health risks.

Very few studies reported the potential of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis to dissipate hydrocarbons in aged polluted soils. The present work aims to study the efficiency of arbuscular mycorrhizal colonized wheat plants in the dissipation of alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Our results demonstrated that the inoculation of wheat with Rhizophagus irregularis allowed a better dissipation of PAHs and alkanes after 16 weeks of culture by comparison to non-inoculated condition. These dissipations observed in the inoculated soil resulted from several processes: (i) a light adsorption on roots (0.5% for PAHs), (ii) a bioaccumulation in roots (5.7% for PAHs and 6.6% for alkanes), (iii) a transfer in shoots (0.4 for PAHs and 0.5% for alkanes) and mainly a biodegradation. Whereas PAHs and alkanes degradation rates were respectively estimated to 12 and 47% with non-inoculated wheat, their degradation rates reached 18 and 48% with inoculated wheat. The mycorrhizal inoculation induced an increase of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria by 56 and 37% compared to the non-inoculated wheat. Moreover, an increase of peroxidase activity was assessed in mycorrhizal roots. Taken together, our findings suggested that mycorrhization led to a better hydrocarbon biodegradation in the aged-contaminated soil thanks to a stimulation of telluric bacteria and hydrocarbon metabolization in mycorrhizal roots.

We investigated effects of Ag2S engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) coated Ag ENMs (PVP-Ag), and Ag+ on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), their colonization of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), and overall microbial community structure in biosolids-amended soil. Concentration-dependent uptake was measured in all treatments. Plants exposed to 100 mg kg−1 PVP-Ag ENMs and 100 mg kg−1 Ag+ exhibited reduced biomass and greatly reduced mycorrhizal colonization. Bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi were inhibited by all treatment classes, with the largest reductions measured in 100 mg kg−1 PVP-Ag ENMs and 100 mg kg−1 Ag+. Overall, Ag2S ENMs were less toxic to plants, less disruptive to plant-mycorrhizal symbiosis, and less inhibitory to the soil microbial community than PVP-Ag ENMs or Ag+. However, significant effects were observed at 1 mg kg−1 Ag2S ENMs, suggesting that the potential exists for microbial communities and the ecosystem services they provide to be disrupted by environmentally relevant concentrations of Ag2S ENMs.

The symbiosis of corals, zooxanthellae, and microbes is the foundation of the coral reef ecosystem. In addition to global warming, marine pollutants are another important factor causing the breakdown of coral symbiosis. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is a globally widespread marine environmental pollutant that poses a severe threat to marine ecosystems. However, responses of coral symbionts to global marine pollutant stress remain unclear. In this study, we selected Acropora formosa as the target coral to explore its response to 50 μg L⁻¹ BaP stress using diaPASEF proteomics and 16s rRNA microbiome analysis. The results showed that: 1) the coral symbionts were sensitive to BaP stress; 2) the photosynthetic system of zooxanthellae was crucial for the balance of symbiotic relationships; 3) the destruction of the photosynthetic system induced a zooxanthellae hypoxic stress response; 4) corals adapted to BaP stress by promoting non-essential protein degradation and changing energy metabolism strategies; 5) symbiotic bacteria showed strong adaptability to BaP. This study not only fills the gap in understanding the response mechanism of coral symbionts under BaP stress, but also provides fundamental data for coral reef protection strategies.

Microplastics are widespread emerging contaminants that have been found globally in the marine and freshwater ecosystem, but there is limited knowledge regarding its impact on coral reef ecosystem and underpinning mechanism. In the present study, using Pocillopora damicornis as a model, we investigated cytological, physiological, and molecular responses of a scleractinian coral to acute microplastic exposure. No significant changes were observed in the density of symbiotic zooxanthellae during the entire period of microplastic exposure, while its chlorophyll content increased significantly at 12 h of microplastic exposure. We observed significant increases in the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, significant decrease in the detoxifying enzyme glutathione S-transferase and the immune enzyme alkaline phosphatase, but no change in the other immune enzyme phenoloxidase during the whole experiment period. Transcriptomic analysis revealed 134 significantly up-regulated coral genes at 12 h after the exposure, enriched in 11 GO terms mostly related to stress response, zymogen granule, and JNK signal pathway. Meanwhile, 215 coral genes were significantly down-regulated at 12 h after exposure, enriched in 25 GO terms involved in sterol transport and EGF-ERK1/2 signal pathway. In contrast, only 12 zooxanthella genes exhibited significant up-regulation and 95 genes down-regulation at 12 h after the microplastic exposure; genes regulating synthesis and export of glucose and amino acids were not impacted. These results suggest that acute exposure of microplastics can activate the stress response of the scleractinian coral P. damicornis, and repress its detoxification and immune system through the JNK and ERK signal pathways. These demonstrate that microplastic exposure can compromise the anti-stress capacity and immune system of the scleractinian coral P. damicornis, despite the minimal impact on the abundance and major photosynthate translocation transporters of the symbiont in the short term.

Phenanthrene uptake by Medicago sativa L. was investigated under the influence of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus. Inoculation of lucerne with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus etunicatum L. resulted in higher phenanthrene accumulation in the roots and lower accumulation in the shoots compared to non-mycorrhizal controls. Studies on sorption and desorption of phenanthrene by roots and characterization of heterogeneity of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal roots using solid-state 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (13C NMR) demonstrated that increased aromatic components due to mycorrhizal inoculation resulted in enhanced phenanthrene uptake by the roots but lower translocation to the shoots. Direct visualization using two-photon excitation microscopy (TPEM) revealed higher phenanthrene accumulation in epidermal cells of roots and lower transport into the root interior and stem in mycorrhizal plants than in non-mycorrhizal controls. These results provide some insight into the mechanisms by which arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculation may influence the uptake of organic contaminants by plants. Colonization by an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus promoted root uptake and decreased shoot uptake of phenanthrene by Medicago sativa L.

Soil metal pollution can trigger evolutionary adaptation in soil-borne organisms. An in vitro screening test showed cadmium adaptation in populations of Suillus luteus (L.: Fr.) Roussel, an ectomycorrhizal fungus of pine trees. Cadmium stress was subsequently investigated in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings inoculated with a Cd-tolerant S. luteus, isolated from a heavy metal contaminated site, and compared to plants inoculated with a Cd-sensitive isolate from a non-polluted area. A dose-response experiment with mycorrhizal pines showed better plant protection by a Cd-adapted fungus: more fungal biomass and a higher nutrient uptake at high Cd exposure. In addition, less Cd was transferred to aboveground plant parts. Because of the key role of the ectomycorrhizal symbiosis for tree fitness, the evolution of Cd tolerance in an ectomycorrhizal partner such as S. luteus can be of major importance for the establishment of pine forests on Cd-contaminated soils. The evolutionary adaptation for higher Cd tolerance in Suillus luteus, an ectomycorrhizal fungus, is of major importance for the amelioration of Cd toxicity in pine trees exposed to high Cd concentrations.

Global warming and local disturbances such as pollution cause several impacts on coral reefs. Among them is the breakdown of the symbiosis between host corals and photosynthetic symbionts, which is often a consequence of oxidative stress. Therefore, we investigated if the combined effects of thermal stress and copper (Cu) exposure change the trophic behavior and oxidative status of the reef-building coral Mussismilia harttii. Coral fragments were exposed in a mesocosm system to three temperatures (25.0, 26.6 and 27.3 °C) and three Cu concentrations (2.9, 5.4 and 8.6 μg L⁻¹). Samples were collected after 4 and 12 days of exposure. We then (i) performed fatty acid analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to quantify changes in stearidonic acid and docosapentaenoic acid (autotrophy markers) and cis-gondoic acid (heterotrophy marker), and (ii) assessed the oxidative status of both host and symbiont through analyses of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). Our findings show that trophic behavior was predominantly autotrophic and remained unchanged under individual and combined stressors for both 4- and 12-day experiments; for the latter, however, there was an increase in the heterotrophy marker. Results also show that 4 days was not enough to trigger changes in LPO or TAC for both coral and symbiont. However, the 12-day experiment showed a reduction in symbiont LPO associated with thermal stress alone, and the combination of stressors increased their TAC. For the coral, the isolated effects of increase in Cu and temperature led to an increase in LPO. The effects of combined stressors on trophic behavior and oxidative status were not much different than those from the isolated effects of each stressor. These findings highlight that host and symbionts respond differently to stress and are relevant as they show the physiological response of individual holobiont compartments to both global and local stressors.

In this study, coral soft tissue, skeleton and zooxanthellae, as well as their ambient sediment and seawater were analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with a special focus on perylene. Samples were collected from two different environments: the Kharg Island, which is affected by numerous anthropogenic stressors and Larak Island, which is mainly used for recreational and fishing activities and is characterized by dense vegetation. The heaviest loadings of PAHs were observed on Kharg Island, yet higher concentrations of perylene were detected on Larak Island and it was identified as the prevailing compound in this area. Pyrogenic perylene sources were prevailing on Kharg Island, whereas the perylene on Larak Island was determined to be of natural origin. After analyzing the biological samples, higher perylene concentrations were observed in zooxanthellae than in tissue and skeleton. The lowest and the highest perylene loadings were found in the tissue and skeleton of Platygyra daedalea and Porites lutea, respectively. This applies to both reefs. We found that perylene distribution in the corals and their ambient environment follows an irregular pattern, demonstrating remarkable effects from the local inputs. The lipid content in the coral tissue and the location of the coral colony were deduced to be the main factors affecting perylene distribution in corals. On Larak Island, a significant correlation between perylene loadings in sediment and corals was observed. On Kharg Island, a strong interaction between the water column and the corals was detected. The symbiotic relationship between the corals and zooxanthellae might play the most significant role in bioconcentration and bioaccumulation of perylene. Due to the insolubility of PAHs, they could be transferred through a food chain to zooxanthellae and eventually deposited in the coral bodies.