A linear programming model was used to analyze the effects of different herd and fodder management levels on agricultural income of small-scale mountain dairy farmers in northern Peru. Results demonstrate that fodder and herd management strongly impact farm profits. There exists considerable potential to improve this situation, as many farmers in the study region are deficient in their fodder and herd management. When moving from average to high management levels, farmers could double their farm profits. In general, high mortality rates, long calving intervals, and inefficient fodder storage practices depress farmers' incomes most. Because of feeding deficiencies, especially in the dry season, recommended extension activities primarily must emphasize fodder storage and improved pasture management, to subsequently also enhance better herd management practices.

Winter rape (Brassica napus L.) significance among field crops is unchangeable for last decade in Latvia. Rape plant development in autumn, plant wintering and plant yielding is partly influenced by plant density. The aim of our research, started in autumn 2007 in the Research and Study farm ''Vecauce'', was to investigate the influence of agro-ecological factors (sowing date, sowing rate and fungicide (as growth regulator in autumn) application) on two type (line and F1) winter rape varieties' plant density in autumn, in spring and at harvesting. Plant density in autumn, in spring and during harvesting was determined also by meteorological parameters as air temperature and precipitation. Oilseed rape field germination was observed from 84% sown on 1st of August in 2007 till 67% sown on 1st of August in 2008. A significant impact (p is less than 0.05) of the sowing rate was noted for plant winter hardiness (in points) for variety 'Californium' in both years: 2008 and 2009. Fungicide application effect on plant survival during winter was observed for treatments with greater plants density. A very little average plant number decrease per square m during summer growth period was noted for all treatments in both years - within 1 to 4% in some cases. The tendency was observed that final plant density at harvest if greater sowing rates had been used, was never high on average for 'Californium' from 75 plants per 1 square m (120 germinable seeds per square m) to 60 plants per 1 square m (100 germinable seeds per square m) in 2009. Correlations between plant density at harvest time and seed yield were found.

The objective of the study was to investigate the microbiological content of cow (Bos primigenius) milk in Latvian organic farms according to season and herd size with a purpose to detect their impact on the distribution of mastitis causing pathogens in milk. Samples were collected in 14 organic dairy farms of Latvia, 4 times through 2012: in winter, autumn, spring and summer period. Raw milk samples (n=564) obtained from cow composite milk were studied. The samples were divided into three groups in accordance with the number of cows in the cow-shed: A (3-30), B (31-60) and C (61-124). The total colony count (TTC) and the isolation of mastitis causing bacteria were analysed using standard methods. Bacterial growth occurred in 90.4% of samples. Isolated microorganisms belonged to 35 species, and the following bacteria were the most prevalent agent, including Coagulase negative staphylococci in 29.4%, Staphylococcus aureus in 24.1%, Kocuria kristinae in 12.9%, and Enterobacteriaceae spp. in 10.3% out of 564 milk samples. Depending on the season, the average number of TCC was the lowest in summer (4.66 ± 4.01 log10 CFU mLE-1), moderately higher in spring and winter (4.72 ± 4.18 and 4.82 ± 3.54 log10 CFU mLE-1, respectively), but significantly higher in autumn (5.43 ± 4.80 log10 CFU mL-E1). Coliforms were not isolated from group A herds instead of B (3.1%) and C (4.6%). Occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus was noticeably higher in B (19.1%) and C (20.8%) than in A (12.6%) herds. Most of group A herds met the milk quality requirements, while group C herds produced more contaminated milk.

Listeria monocytogenes is a pathogen that causes infectious diseases in animals and foodborne infection in humans. The aim of this retrospective study was to analyse L. monocytogenes caused abortions in cattle in Latvia in 2013, and to describe the potential reasons of these abortions. In total, 186 cattle abortion cases were investigated. The pathological material from aborted foetuses included samples of brain, heart, liver, spleen, kidneys and lung, liquid of stomach and liquid from thoracic and abdominal cavities. These samples were tested with bacteriological methods according to ISO 11290-1:2007. L. monocytogenes was found in 44 (23.7%) cases of cattle abortions. Positive cases were more distributed in the central and the south-eastern parts of Latvia, because in this territory winters tend to be wetter and colder than in other parts of Latvia. Seasonality was observed of L. monocytogenes caused abortions and the majority of cases occurred during spring and autumn, when the cattle were fed with silage. All abortion cases were observed in the second and the third trimester of the gestation. L. monocytogenes caused abortions occurred in cattle of different ages, but significantly (p is less than 0.05) more often – in 3 years old cattle.

Apple trees are the most common fruit tree type in the EU covering 450 000 ha. At the global scale, the largest apple exporters are EU-27, China, Chile and the USA, but the largest importers – the EU-27 and Russia. In the EU and Russia, large volumes of apples are imported during the cold time of the year. The market for fresh fruit has traditionally been driven by price, but today’s market has become even more dynamic and consumers – more fastidious. The aim of the article is to identify the main determinants influencing prices of fresh fruits and indicate a range of differences between winter and summer prices of fruits based on the example of apples. The current research should be regarded as a ‘work in progress’, as it will be a part of more extensive research conducted in several EU countries and different times of the year. In the present research, the authors have used comparative analysis, which was based on theoretical literature studies, publications and statistical data available in EUROSTAT databases as well as statistical data aggregated by Spanish, Polish and Latvian market research institutions.

Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H.Karst.) is amongst the most important tree species for forestry in Latvia. It has been suggested that due to the foreseen climate change the productivity of Norway spruce in Latvia may decrease. Continuous observations of radial increment allow to identify periods with different growth intensity and to study the effect of environmental conditions on radial increment during them. The aim of this study was to analyse stem radial variation of Norway spruce in mixed-species stand in response to meteorological conditions over one growing season. Stem radial variation of one Norway spruce tree was monitored by band dendrometer throughout the growing season of 2013. Cumulative radial increment was divided into contraction, recovery and increment phases by the stem cycle approach. Four periods with distinct apportionment of these phases were identified – winter/spring dormancy, spring/ summer growth, growth termination and autumn hydration fluctuations. Radial increment began in the second part of May and the most active increment was observed during period of spring/summer growth. This period lasted for 42 days with the mean amplitude of stem radial variations reaching 0.06 mm while the length of increment phase reached up to two days. Throughout the growing season increment was facilitated by an increase in the temperature. Meanwhile, the effect of precipitation was insignificant, presumably due to sufficient water availability and low interspecies competition for it, characteristic in mixed species stands due to differences in depth and distribution of root systems between the species.

It is very important to use the exact investment model for energy enterprises. Giant investment is necessary for establishing continued energy systems using renewable energy resources. Demand of the heat energy usually is higher in a winter period compare to the summer time. Program combinations of different heating modus are researched using EnergyPRO.