Aroma forming volatiles are important components of fermented beverages. The aim of current research is to evaluate the influence of different yeast strains on the volatile compounds of fermented apple juice of the variety ‘Lietuvas Pepins’. Apples were harvested in the Latvia State Institute of Fruit Growing. Apple variety ‘Lietuvas Pepins’ juice was fermented with four different commercial yeast strains - Saccharomyces bayanis yeasts ‘EC-1118’, ‘Cider yeast’, Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeasts ‘71B-1122’ and ‘K1V- 1116’. Fermentation was performed in laboratories of Latvia University of Agriculture, Faculty of Food Technology. Volatile aroma compounds of apple juice, yeasts and fermented juice were determined. Extraction of aroma compounds was performed using solid phase microextraction (DVB/Car/PDMS fibre). Analysis of volatile aroma compounds was made using a Perkin Elmer Clarus 500 GC/ MS. The data obtained in the present study shows the influence of the yeast strain on the final chemical and volatile composition. The main group of volatiles in juice was esters, whereas in fermented juices – alcohols. The highest percentage of esters was determined in juice fermented with ‘Cider yeast’ whereas the highest percentages of alcohols – in juice fermented with yeast K1V-1116 and also free terpenes, associated with the floral note. The 71B-1122 strain produced the highest amount of identified volatile compounds. The strains potentially producing a higher number of volatile compounds could contribute to a more complex aroma of the final product, due to their potential ability to utilize and transform numerous apple must precursors.

Highbush blueberries are thought to provide protection against oxidative damage of free radicals and contribute to positive health benefits. They have been studied little in Latvia; therefore, the aim of study was to evaluate the soluble solids content, titratable acidity and sugar content of berries harvested in 2010. Seven varieties of cultivated highbush blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) grown in Latvia were analysed. Analyses were done for frozen berries of varieties ‘Bluecrop’, ‘Chandler’, ‘Chippewa’, ‘Duke’, ‘Northblue’, ‘Patriot’ and ‘Polaris’. All experiments were performed at the Latvia University of Agriculture, Faculty of Food Technology. The content of titratable acids (TA) was detected using standard method ISO 750:1998 by titration with 0.1N NaOH. Soluble solids content (SSC) was analysed using standard method ISO 2173:2003 by hand refractometer. Sugars (fructose, glucose and sucrose) were analysed by high-pressure liquid chromatography HPLC analysis. Results showed that there are significant differences between varieties (p is less than 0.05) for all parameters. TA content varied from 0.4 – 1.2%, SSC - 8.5 – 10.8 degBrix and total sugars from 7.6 to 9.3 g 100 gE-1. The highest ratio between sugars and titratable acids was for ‘Polaris’ while the lowest – ‘Chandler’ and ‘Bluecrop’.

Sherbet with crunchy peanut chips could be classified as milk pomade. It is one of popular sweets in Latvia produced by Joint-stock Company Laima, which is one of the oldest producers of sweets in the Baltic States. Freshly made sherbet is soft and savoury but after several days’ storage at the open air gradually hardens, the product loses eye appeal, taste and becomes unmarketable. This problem limits the shelf life, so sherbet with crunchy peanut chips can be marketed only at the local market. The target of this study was to clarify the situation on the market in Latvia and to examine an issue of Latvian consumers’ awareness of milk pomade sweets – sherbet quality indicators, packaging and its presentation to consumers, as well as the sherbet market expandability. A questionnaire was developed – 800 respondents answered on the 14 questions – how well-recognized the milk pomade sweet – sherbet is, what the main features for this kind of sweets selection by consumers are, which quality indices are important for consumers. One of most important questions was to get know the consumers opinion about sweets, mainly sherbet possible packaging kind and the market turnover. Summarizing the questionnaire data, the response from consumers in Latvia was heartening – they like milk pomade candies. As a primary quality defect the hardness of sherbet was mentioned. Eliminating this main failing of quality, the demand of sherbet on the market could rise, as well the product marketing opportunities will grow.

Forest resources are Latvian national treasure that plays an important role in both ecology and economics of Latvia. Although a number of studies give summaries of statistical data, they have also been used as the basis for this study. Therefore, statistical analysis of the data on acquisition, regeneration, import and export of forest resources in Latvia has been carried out in this study. The aim of the study is to identify the available statistical information on the forest resources in Latvia by ascertaining the amount of available information, types of statistical data used in identifying information on tree felling, annual afforestation, import and export, and to carry out analysis of the acquired data. The statistical information has been obtained from the websites of the State Forest Service and the Statistical Office of the European Communities (Eurostat). As a result of the study, we have obtained the dynamics of tree felling and forest regeneration by dominant tree species. The study also reveals the dynamics of import and export of timber resources of the main products. The study was carried out in 2011, in Latvian.

It is essential to have information on the tree biomass due to the fact that it is an important ecosystem pool for reporting changes in carbon stocks of forests and increased attempts to diversify the energy sources. In Latvia, comparatively few studies have focused on this topic so far. Our study was conducted on two 36 - 38 years old Norway spruce plantations. Detailed stem analysis of 39 trees was performed, and biomass of the above-ground tree components was determined. We analyzed tree and clone-level biomass distribution, biomass relations with tree dimensions and dependence on the genetic factors. The mean total biomass (kg d.w.) of all analyzed sample trees was 131.4 ± 10.58 kg, the mean biomass of stem 85.9 ± 6.98 kg, the mean biomass of dead branches 8.3 ± 0.82 kg, the mean biomass of living branches 23.5 ± 2.34 kg and the mean biomass of needles 13.7 ± 1.22 kg. On average, 66.1% of biomass was allocated to the stem, 6.4% to the dead branches, 17.4% to the living branches and 10.1% to the needles. The biomass of the analyzed trees positively correlated with all tested tree parameters - DBH, tree height, stem volume. Typically, with increasing tree parameters total biomass and stem biomass increased rapidly but branch and needle biomass increased slowly. Significant differences of tree dimensions were detected between the clones, and the differences in total biomass and stem biomass were clearly correlated with the differences in tree dimensions over clones. No significant impact of the clone was found specifically on the tree biomass or its distribution.

Considering specific role of forest in carbon cycling, the scope of the study is evaluation of assimilation of carbon dioxide in a single grey alder stand. The National statistical forest inventory demonstrates that total area of afforested farmlands is 314 thousands of ha, including 212 thousands of ha are grey alder stands. Empiric data are collected in 2011 in 15 years old grey alder stand representing Aegopodiosa site type, site index II. Dendrometric characteristic of the stand are estimated using a method of 6 sample tree plots. Average height of dominant trees is 9.6 ± 0.14 m, diameter at breast height - 6.7 ± 0.18 cm, volume of stem - 0.02002 ± 0.00673 m3, number of trees per ha – 5806 ± 560, growing stock - 116.2 ± 20.0 m3 haE-1. Density of the grey alder stem wood is 411.0 ± 2.2 kg mE-3, average relative moisture - 51.6 ± 0.13%. Dry biomass of grey alder in the evaluated stand is 73.4 tons haE-1, including stem biomass - 65.3%, branches - 11.1%, leaves - 2.3%, stump - 6.8% and roots - 14.6%. In average evaluated stands accumulated 36.9 tons haE-1 of carbon removing from atmosphere 135.5 t ha-1 of CO2. Wood density is estimated according to ISO 3131:1975 standard, moisture content – according to EN13183-1:2002 standard.

Recreation services are the forests’ non-market goods which constitute a substantial part of the total economic value and are important for the choice of multi-functional forest policies. However recreational services do not always have a market price and comparatively less literature applies value orientations to examine issues concerned with recreational use of natural resources. This research reports on the findings of the comprehensive, national-level study about the contribution of forest recreational services to Latvia’s national economy in 2009 and about the respondents’ declared choices, travel costs and willingness to contribute some money for improvement of amenities in a forest. Two general information sources were used to obtain the information - available statistical data and the contingent valuation survey to estimate the respondents’ choices and habits for recreation activities in the forests. Results show that forest recreation is very popular and highly valued in Latvia. The statistical analysis confirms that the significant differences exist between varied respondents’ socioeconomic groups in their objectives, choices and preferences to use the forest recreational services.

The social enterprise features are well known in the world history while in Latvia there is a lack of studies and understanding about it. The aim of the research paper is to study the influencing factors of social entrepreneurship in Latvia. In the research the essence of social entrepreneurship and the main principles for definition of social enterprises – social mission, business orientation and involvement of marginalized groups are described. The analysis to determine the most important internal and external factors influencing development of social entrepreneurship was carried out. It was found out that the main external factors are political and legal environment, lack of knowledge about significance of social entrepreneurship, dominating values in society and such internal factors as access to finances, recruitment of professional and well motivated personnel.

Baltic States’ dairy sectors are important to their economies. All Baltic States have had substantial current account deficits that exceeded acceptable thresholds until the year 2009. The States are dairy product exporters. Export capability largely depends on international competitive position of dairy processing companies. Several factors, inter alia, company size determine the position. Largest companies have been formed by horizontal integration. At Baltic scale dairy processing is still fragmented. The aim of this paper is to evaluate economic effect aspects of integration related to exports in the Baltic States’ dairy sector secondary level. As the subject has not been explored earlier at company level, the author researched data of 188 annual reports of 53 Baltic dairy processing companies over the period 2003 to 2009. Descriptive statistics, time series analysis and regression analysis methods were primarily used. The author establishes that among dairy companies which generate significant exports turnover two-thirds are horizontally integrated and include all largest dairy processing firms in the Baltic States. A few smaller firms have succeeded in exporting due to suitable channel management. Among a large group of companies that generate less than 1% turnover from exports, 77% are non-integrated and all are small. Using regression analysis the author estimates that 1% increase in net turnover in the exporting dairy company group is expected to create 0.93 – 0.94% increase in net turnover from exports. Policies promoting mergers of some companies may thus lead to increased dairy exports, higher milk production and fuller realisation of economic potential of the sector.

The aim of the study was to examine the effect of coagulant PAX – 18 (polyaluminum chloride) on additional phosphorus removal in reed sand filters. Batch experiments for precipitation reaction with wastewater from septic tank and after treatment in the reed sand filter were carried out. The doses of coagulant under 200 mg L-E1 and time of coagulation under 72 h were applied. Coagulant PAX – 18 efficiently removes phosphorus from the wastewater. The efficacy of removal depends on the dose of coagulant and the time of coagulation. Optimal hydraulic retention time is about 40 hours. With regard to the consumption of coagulant to remove 1 mg of P, it is most efficient to apply coagulant before wastewater treatment in the filter. During the coagulation time of 40 hours, 1 milligram of aluminium oxide precipitated 0.23 mg of P in the wastewater from the filter and 0.39 mg in the wastewater from the septic tank. In this case the removal of P was 1.65 times more effective. Coagulant decreases the wastewater pollution according to BOD5 and the concentration of suspended solids. Therefore, it is advisable to use the coagulant before wastewater treatment in the filter, as it reduces the organic load of filters and the possibility of filter clogging due to lower concentration of suspended solids.