"If you were to ask a layman which is the most important resource among food, energy and water, the answer is likely to be "food." As a matter of fact, humans can survive longer without food and energy than without water. However, humans depend on the sun as the primary source of energy that assures our survival on this planet. Furthermore, the civilized world is highly dependent on energy for comfortable living and mobility. This suggests that energy is a very important requirement. The fact is we need all of them and their interrelationship is discussed below (1)"--

Changing precipitation patterns and shortages of surface and groundwater in important cropping regions pose a serious threat to China’s future food security. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of water used for food production over the period 1998–2010 with a view to identifying pathways for achieving the national target of 580 million tons of grain output by 2020. The analysis was based on modelling of agricultural water use coupled with national and provincial statistics. The present situation was defined by (a) a slow declining trend in national precipitation and internally renewable water resources, (b) 12 out of the 13 so-called breadbasket provinces (which currently produce 74 % of national grain output) already facing water shortages and increasing competition for water from non-agricultural sectors, (c) national crop water productivity (CWP) increases of 19.5 % over the 13 years to 2010, and (d) a widening gap in CWP between breadbasket and non-breadbasket provinces. By 2020 an estimated 510 to 680 km³ of water will be required for food production depending upon future gains in CWP. A concern is that in many of the breadbasket provinces, recent CWP gains have already been substantial and additional large gains may prove difficult especially considering current environmental concerns related to agricultural intensification in China. That said, the historic efficiency gains give reason for optimism provided that there is continued investment in genetic improvement and innovation of farming systems.

PR | IFPRI3; ISI; CRP5 | EPTD | CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE)

Agricultural water use includes a continuum from purely rainfed to fully irrigated systems. Growing pressures on limited water supplies from domestic, industrial, and environmental uses will likely lead to a decline in water availability for food production. Similarly, income growth and urbanization lead to dietary shifts that require more water resources per calorie consumed, putting further pressures on water supplies. As a result, semiarid and arid countries continue to increase net imports of food. Crop water use for sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.), maize (Zea mays L.), soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], and fruits are expected to grow over time, whereas water use for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) are expected to decline after 2030. These projections include substantial improvements in water use efficiency at the field, farm, and river basin scale over the coming decades in response to growing water scarcity. If these efficiency improvements are not achieved, future crop water demands would be even larger. Although water resources are a key limiting factor for future food security, policy and investment options to reduce agricultural water use exist on both the water supply and demand side; but political will and ingenuity are needed for their implementation.

Food aid is a critical component of the global food system, particularly when emergency situations arise. For the first time, we evaluate the water footprint of food aid. To do this, we draw on food aid data from theWorld Food Programme and virtual water content estimates from WaterStat. We find that the total water footprint of food aid was 10 km3 in 2005, which represents approximately 0.5% of the water footprint of food trade and 2.0% of the water footprint of land grabbing (i.e., water appropriation associated with large agricultural land deals). The United States is by far the largest food aid donor and contributes 82% of the water footprint of food aid. The countries that receive the most water embodied in aid are Ethiopia, Sudan, North Korea, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. Notably, we find that there is significant overlap between countries that receive food aid and those that have their land grabbed. Multivariate regression results indicate that donor water footprints are driven by political and environmental variables, whereas recipient water footprints are driven by land grabbing and food indicators.

International water law, which regulates the uses of international watercourses that are situated partly in different States, is a highly topical sector of law. In 2014, two conventions covering the subject matter entered into force globally. At the same time, a water-food-energy nexus has become part and parcel of the development canon that emphasises the importance of the complex relationship between water, energy and food. In this article, it is discussed whether international water law supports the water-food-energy nexus approach, which aims to reconcile the different water uses in international basins. The analysis also covers the human rights to water and food from the nexus viewpoint. The legal regime of the Mekong River is used as an example of the possibilities and challenges of the nexus approach in international water law. It is concluded that despite its deficiencies international water law provides a very useful platform for the cooperation between States and different sectors that aim at guaranteeing water, food and energy security.

International water law, which regulates the uses of international watercourses that are situated partly in different States, is a highly topical sector of law. In 2014, two conventions covering the subject matter entered into force globally. At the same time, a water-food-energy nexus has become part and parcel of the development canon that emphasises the importance of the complex relationship between water, energy and food. In this article, it is discussed whether international water law supports the water-food-energy nexus approach, which aims to reconcile the different water uses in international basins. The analysis also covers the human rights to water and food from the nexus viewpoint. The legal regime of the Mekong River is used as an example of the possibilities and challenges of the nexus approach in international water law. It is concluded that despite its deficiencies international water law provides a very useful platform for the cooperation between States and different sectors that aim at guaranteeing water, food and energy security.

International water law, which regulates the uses of international watercourses that are situated partly in different States, is a highly topical sector of law. In 2014, two conventions covering the subject matter entered into force globally. At the same time, a water-food-energy nexus has become part and parcel of the development canon that emphasises the importance of the complex relationship between water, energy and food. In this article, it is discussed whether international water law supports the water-food-energy nexus approach, which aims to reconcile the different water uses in international basins. The analysis also covers the human rights to water and food from the nexus viewpoint. The legal regime of the Mekong River is used as an example of the possibilities and challenges of the nexus approach in international water law. It is concluded that despite its deficiencies international water law provides a very useful platform for the cooperation between States and different sectors that aim at guaranteeing water, food and energy security.

PR | IFPRI3; CRP5; ISI | EPTD | CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE)

CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) | Bhaduri Anik et al., 'Sustainability in the water–energy–food nexus', Water International 40, IFPRI, 2015