Para a determinação do volume de água retido no solo e disponível às plantas, é imprescindível quantificar o teor de água do solo (TAS) na capacidade de campo (CC) e no ponto de murcha permanente (PMP). O objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar os valores do TAS na CC e no PMP determinados por distintos métodos. Utilizaram-se amostras de um Latossolo Vermelho. A CC foi obtida no campo com o método do perfil instantâneo e, no laboratório, com funis de placa porosa. O PMP foi determinado, em laboratório, como sendo o teor de água residual retida no potencial matricial de -1,5 MPa, em câmara de Richards e com medidor de potencial de ponto de orvalho WP4 PotentiaMeter. Para murcha das plantas, o TAS foi significativamente menor no método fisiológico que o determinado nas câmaras de Richards; entretanto, o teor de água do solo no PMP foi estatisticamente igual para a cultura do girassol e superior para o milho, quando comparado com aquele obtido pelo WP4. A água disponível diminuiu com o aumento na tensão para a estimativa da CC e com o método WP4, mas não diferiu do método fisiológico. Assim, o WP4 permitiu adequada estimativa do PMP e disponibilidade hídrica às plantas, em solo argiloso.<br>To estimate available soil water to plants it is necessary to measure field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP). The objective of this study was to compare soil moisture at FC and PWP measured by different methods. The soil used was a tropical Oxisol (Haplorthox). The FC was measured under field conditions, using the internal drainage method and in laboratory using porous plate funnel. The PWP was quantified in laboratory as the soil moisture at -1.5 MPa matric potential measured by pressure plate apparatus (Richards chamber) and by WP4 dewpoint Potentia Meter. The physiological PWP was measured using corn and sunflower plants, when they had three leaf pairs and showed irreversible wilting. The soil moisture for PWP based on the physiological method was smaller than soil moisture measured with the pressure plate apparatus; however, soil moisture for sunflower wilting was similar while for corn it was greater than that obtained with the WP4. The available water decreased with increase in water tension considered for estimating FC and with the WP4 method, but similar to one quantified with the physiological method. Thus, the WP4 allowed for adequate estimation of PWP and available water to plants in a clay soil.

This research was carried out in Villaflores and Villa Corzo, located in Chiapas State of Mexico. Specifically, throughout an ethno-agronomical approach, semi-structured interviews were designed and applied to the chayote producers who were selected by random routes. The results indicate the 57.89% of chayote producers in both municipalities, have allowed to control weeds in their crops, and being a higher proportion represented by Villaflores. Given these concerns, they prefer to control weeds throughout traditional methods, basically using mattocks with frequencies of 15 to 30 days after sowing or two to four times per cycle of crop production. Both pest and diseases are mainly controlled throughout chemical methods application. A preference to perform control among periods of higher rainfall or drought is not distinguished. A considerable percentage, which reaches 44% of the interviewed population among both municipalities, report they do not need to control pests and crop diseases.

Abstract This research was carried out in Villaflores and Villa Corzo, located in Chiapas State of Mexico. Specifically, throughout an ethno-agronomical approach, semi-structured interviews were designed and applied to the chayote producers who were selected by random routes. The results indicate the 57.89% of chayote producers in both municipalities, have allowed to control weeds in their crops, and being a higher proportion represented by Villaflores. Given these concerns, they prefer to control weeds throughout traditional methods, basically using mattocks with frequencies of 15 to 30 days after sowing or two to four times per cycle of crop production. Both pest and diseases are mainly controlled throughout chemical methods application. A preference to perform control among periods of higher rainfall or drought is not distinguished. A considerable percentage, which reaches 44% of the interviewed population among both municipalities, report they do not need to control pests and crop diseases. | Resumen La investigación se llevó a cabo en los municipios de Villaflores y Villa Corzo en el estado de Chiapas, a través de un enfoque etno-agronómico, se diseñaron y aplicaron entrevistas semiestructuradas a productores de chayote seleccionados por rutas aleatorias. Los resultados indican que el 57.89% de los productores de chayote de ambos municipios controlan las malezas en sus plantaciones, siendo mayor la proporción en Villaflores. Para controlar las malezas prefieren usar métodos culturales, fundamentalmente con la ayuda de coas o azadones y con frecuencias de 15 a 30 días después de la siembra o de dos a cuatro veces por ciclo de producción del cultivo. Las plagas y enfermedades se controlar mayoritariamente a través de métodos químicos, sobre todo en Villaflores durante la fase de fructificación. No se distingue una preferencia a realizar el control entre las épocas de mayores precipitaciones o durante la sequía. Un porcentaje considerable, que llega a alcanzar 44% del total de la población entrevistada entre ambos municipios, refieren que no necesitan controlar las plagas y enfermedades del cultivo.

A irrigação por aspersão em malha está sendo bastante utilizada em café, pastagem, cana forrageira e capineiras, por ser sistema de baixo custo, de fácil instalação e manejo e por permitir fertirrigação com água residuária de suinocultura e de bovinocultura. Para determinar a uniformidade de distribuição de água e de água residuária de suinocultura nesse sistema de irrigação, foi conduzido um experimento na Fazenda-Escola da Universidade de Uberaba, empregando-se pluviômetros eqüidistantes, entre quatro aspersores de duas linhas laterais. O coeficiente de uniformidade de Christiansen (CUC) e o coeficiente de uniformidade de distribuição (CUD) foram superiores aos valores mínimos recomendados, mesmo com 200 m³ de água residuária de suinocultura por hectare por ano. | The net-sprinkler irrigation is frequently being used in coffee, pasture, sugar cane forage and forages, due low cost system, easy installation and handling, allowing fertigation with wastewater of swine and bovine. Aiming to determine the water and wastewater of swine distribution uniformity with this irrigation system, an experiment was carried out at Uberaba University - Brazil, being used pluviometers among four sprinklers of two lateral lines. The Christiansen&acute;s uniformity coefficient (CUC) and the uniformity distribution coefficient (UDC) were superior to the minimum recommended values, even with 200 m³ ha-1 year-1 of swine wastewater.

A irrigação por aspersão em malha está sendo bastante utilizada em café, pastagem, cana forrageira e capineiras, por ser sistema de baixo custo, de fácil instalação e manejo e por permitir fertirrigação com água residuária de suinocultura e de bovinocultura. Para determinar a uniformidade de distribuição de água e de água residuária de suinocultura nesse sistema de irrigação, foi conduzido um experimento na Fazenda-Escola da Universidade de Uberaba, empregando-se pluviômetros eqüidistantes, entre quatro aspersores de duas linhas laterais. O coeficiente de uniformidade de Christiansen (CUC) e o coeficiente de uniformidade de distribuição (CUD) foram superiores aos valores mínimos recomendados, mesmo com 200 m³ de água residuária de suinocultura por hectare por ano.<br>The net-sprinkler irrigation is frequently being used in coffee, pasture, sugar cane forage and forages, due low cost system, easy installation and handling, allowing fertigation with wastewater of swine and bovine. Aiming to determine the water and wastewater of swine distribution uniformity with this irrigation system, an experiment was carried out at Uberaba University - Brazil, being used pluviometers among four sprinklers of two lateral lines. The Christiansen&acute;s uniformity coefficient (CUC) and the uniformity distribution coefficient (UDC) were superior to the minimum recommended values, even with 200 m³ ha-1 year-1 of swine wastewater.

Con el objetivo de evaluar la variación en la calidad del agua de riego por goteo en un huerto de cítricos y sus consecuencias sobre el suelo y las plantas se realizó un ensayo en la finca "El Saladar", situada en la población de Sueca, Valencia, España. Durante toda la temporada del estudio se muestreó periódicamente las aguas de la A. R. del Júcar, del canal de conducción para el riego de arroz, y la utilizada para el riego de cítricos en la finca, en el sitio destinado a la captación, para determinar su calidad y su variación. También se hizo muestreo con la misma periodicidad del agua de drenaje, colectada en pozos de observaciones instalados en cada cuadrante del área del experimento. Considerando los resultados obtenidos, se puede concluir que la mezcla de las aguas de drenaje con el agua de la A. R. del Júcar, en general es clasificada como C3S1 y, según las directrices de la FAO, no presenta ningún grado de restricción de uso; Es posible la utilización de la mezcla de agua de buena calidad (P. ej. CE entre 1,18-1,43 dS m-1, RAS y RASº entre 1,37-1,81 y 1,74-2,43 (mmol c L-1)½, con una agua de calidad dudosa (P. ej. CE entre 3,05-4,21 dS m-1, RAS y RASº entre 2,83-4,00 y 3,41-4,84 (mmol c L-1)½, durante un largo periodo de tiempo, sin salinizar ni sodificar el suelo; La mezcla de agua utilizada en el riego de cítricos no influenció en el desarrollo de la planta.<br>An experiment was carried out with the objective of evaluating the variation in the water quality in drip irrigation in an orchard of citrus and their consequences on the soil and plants at the farm "El Saladar", located in the population of "Sueca", Valencia, Spain. During the whole season of the study, the water of the A. R. of the Júcar used for citrus irrigation, were sampled from conveyance conduction channel for rice irrigation in order to determine water quality and its variation. Also the drainage water was sampled from observation wells installed in each quadrant of the area of the experiment. Considering the obtained results it can be concluded that the mixture of the drainage water with the water of the Real Canal of the Júcar is classified as C3S1 and, according to the guidelines of the FAO it does not present any degree of use restriction. It is possible to utilize the mixture of good water (EC between 1.18-1.43 dS m-1, SAR and SARº between 1.37-1.81 and 1.74-2.43 (mmol L-1)½, with a doubtful quality water (EC between 3.05-4.21 dS m-1, SAR and SARº between 2.83-4.00 and 3.41-4.84 (mmol L-1)½, during a long time, without having a saline or sodic soil; the mixture of water used in the irrigation of citric fruits did not influence the development of the plant.

The mites damage caused by P. latus and P. oleivora in the orange crop Valencia (Citrus sinensis L.) has an economical detrimental impact due to the external damage of the fruits. To evaluate the effect of biological control agents for these two pests, this work was carried out in a commercial crop in Caicedonia, Cauca Valley , Colombia. The experimental design consisted of a randomized complete block, in which the following treatments were evaluated: (1) release of Phytoseiidae native species: Neoseiulus anonymus, Neoseiulus californicus, Iphiseiodes zuluagai and Amblyseius herbicolus (500 individuals / tree); (2) release of Chrysoperla carnea larvae (100 larvae / tree); (3) exclusion of beneficial agents (localized application of cypermethrin 2 cm³/lt) and (4) control farmer (localized application of abamectin, 1.5 cm³/lt). The releases and applications of the treatments were made on floral clusters and fruit marked in the middle third of each tree. Evaluations were made weekly until harvest time. For management of P. latus it was found that the treatments Phytoseiidae release, C. carnea release and abamectin application showed the least damage; exclusion of the beneficial agents demonstrated the importance of the natural control agents on this pest. For management of P. oleivora, C. carnea release and abamectin application showed the least damage. In release treatments of Phytoseiidae native species and the exclusion of beneficial agents, P. oleivora caused significant damage. | El daño ocasionado por los ácaros Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) y Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashmead) en el cultivo de naranja Valencia (Citrus sinensis L.) es reconocido tanto por el impacto económico como por el daño externo de los frutos. En este trabajo se evaluó el efecto de agentes biológicos para el control de estas plagas en un cultivo comercial de naranja Valencia en el municipio de Caicedonia, Valle del Cauca, Colombia. Se usó un diseño de bloques completos al azar para evaluar los tratamientos siguientes: (1) liberación de especies de Phytoseiidae nativos (Neoseiulus anonymus, Neoseiulus californicus, Iphiseiodes zuluagai y Amblyseius herbicolus en poblaciones de 500 individuos/árbol; (2) liberación de larvas de Chrysoperla carnea (100 larvas/árbol); (3) aplicación localizada de cipermetrina 2 cm³/lt como tratamiento de exclusión de agentes benéficos; y (4) testigo consistente en el tratamiento utilizado por los agricultores (aplicación localizada de abamectina, 1.5 cm³/lt). Las liberaciones de las especies benéficas y las aplicaciones de los tratamientos se realizaron sobre racimos florales y frutos marcados en el tercio medio de cada árbol. Las evaluaciones de daños se realizaron cada semana hasta la cosecha. Los tratamientos de liberación de Phytoseiidae, liberación de larvas de C. carnea y aplicación de abamectina presentaron el menor daño de P. latus; el tratamiento de exclusión de benéficos demostró la importancia de los agentes controladores naturales sobre la plaga. En el manejo de P. oleivora, los tratamientos de liberación de larvas de C. carnea y aplicación de abamectina presentaron los mejores resultados con el menor daño en frutos. La población de P. oleivora ocasionó daños significativos en el tratamiento de liberación de ácaros Phytoseiidae y exclusión de benéficos.