Abstract Background Honey bees and honeycomb bees are very valuable for wild flowering plants and economically important crops due to their role as pollinators. However, these insects confront many disease threats (viruses, parasites, bacteria and fungi) and large pesticide concentrations in the environment. Varroa destructor is the most prevalent disease that has had the most negative effects on the fitness and survival of different honey bees (Apis mellifera and A. cerana). Moreover, honey bees are social insects and this ectoparasite can be easily transmitted within and across bee colonies. Objective This review aims to provide a survey of the diversity and distribution of important bee infections and possible management and treatment options, so that honey bee colony health can be maintained. Methods We used PRISMA guidelines throughout article selection, published between January 1960 and December 2020. PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and Ovid databases were searched. Results We have collected 132 articles and retained 106 articles for this study. The data obtained revealed that V. destructor and Nosema spp. were found to be the major pathogens of honey bees worldwide. The impact of these infections can result in the incapacity of forager bees to fly, disorientation, paralysis, and death of many individuals in the colony. We find that both hygienic and chemical pest management strategies must be implemented to prevent, reduce the parasite loads and transmission of pathogens. The use of an effective miticide (fluvalinate‐tau, coumaphos and amitraz) now seems to be an essential and common practice required to minimise the impact of Varroa mites and other pathogens on bee colonies. New, alternative biofriendly control methods, are on the rise, and could be critical for maintaining honey bee hive health and improving honey productivity. Conclusions We suggest that critical health control methods be adopted globally and that an international monitoring system be implemented to determine honey bee colony safety, regularly identify parasite prevalence, as well as potential risk factors, so that the impact of pathogens on bee health can be recognised and quantified on a global scale.

This research was conducted during the seasons 2020 and 2021 at the Agricultural Scientific Research Center in Amrit- Tartous. The research included studying the effect of three treatments of fertilization: (15-30-45) tons. hectare-1 of fermented cow manure, and the control (mineral fertilization). Each fertilizer level included three treatments of corms weight (2-4, 4-6, 6-8 g) and each corm weight included three treatments of corms density (40-50-60) corms.m-2. The field experiment was carried out according to a randomized complete block design with the order of splitting pieces design of the second degree with three replications. The results showed that the manure fertilization treatments were significantly superior over the control in all the studied traits and corm weight of 6-8 g was the best in all the studied traits. The interaction of the corms density 60 corms.m-2 with the fertilization rate of 45 tons.ha-1 and corm weight of 6-8 g recorded the best results in terms of number of flowers )21.5) flower.m-2 , the dry weight of stigmas (0.082) g.m-2, fresh weight of stigmas (0.291) g.m-2, the number of corms (3.55) corm.m-2, weight of corms (21.40) g and the leaf area of plant (209.23) cm2. While the corms density of 40 corms.m-2 with a fertilization rate of 45 tons.ha-1 and corm weight of 6-8 g, exceeded in the best ratios of the active substances crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, respectively (E1% 440 nm =197.25),( 65.15=E1% 257 nm),(E1% 330 nm= 40.30). This research included the determination of both phenols and flavonoids in the alcoholic extract of saffron petals and stamens using rutin and gallic acid solution, in addition to estimating the antioxidant efficacy of the extracts using the Diphenyl Becquerel Hydrazyl Test. The results showed that saffron petals extract significantly exceeded the stamens extract in the amount of phenols and flavonoids, reaching (5.23-2.89) mg.g-1, respectively. Thus, the ability to inhibit free radicals was higher in petals (60.9%) than in stamens (34.18%) at concentration (0.5 mg. ml-1( and it was directly proportional to the increase in concentration of extracts. The effect of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron petals on inhibiting the growth of fungi(Fusarium oxysporum) and(Penicillium italicum) on PDA nutrient media was evaluated in vitro using concentrations (1-2.5-5-10-15) mg.ml-1 for each Extract. The results showed that all concentrations of the alcoholic petal extract were significantly superior to the control in inhibiting the growth of Fusarium and Penicillium fungi, and the concentration of 15 mg.ml-1 had the ability to inhibit the national growth of both fungi and the inhibition percentage was 100%. While the concentrations of 5,10 and 15 mg.ml-1 of the aqueous extract were significantly superior to the control in inhibiting the growth of the two fungi spices, and the inhibition of Fusarium and Penicillium at the concentration of 15 mg.ml-1 was(40.88 and 53.59)% with a diagonal growth rate of (5.17 and 4.06) cm, respectively. The alcoholic extract of the petals was significantly superior to the aqueous extract at all concentrations in inhibiting the growth of the two fungi, and the inhibition ability increased exponentially with the increase in the concentration of extract.

Foliar spray of Citrus seedling ( Femminello Santa Teresa), with different concentrations of sodium silicate 200, 400ppm, salicylic acid 50, 75ppm, chitosan 200, 300, 400ppm, and boric acid 500, 1000ppm, were applied to study their effects on vegetative growth (length of New branches, number of leaves, the increase in seedling diameter, infected leaf area, leaf thickness, leaf dry weight), and some biophysical indicators (LRWC% of leaves, and leaf temperature), as well as plant defense mechanisms against Citrus leaf miner insect. (leaf defensive signals: salicylic acid, calcium ions, and H2O2 content, chemical changes in leaves: leaf content of total phenols, and α- free amino acids, reducing sugars, sucrose, total soluble sugars, of total minerals , total chlorophyll, the activity of antioxidant enzymes: catalase, peroxidase, and polyphenol oxidase), as well as their effect on reducing the damage of the CLM (percentage of the area of the affected part, the length of the tunnel, the comparison of the number of tunnels on the upper and lower surface, damage density, Infection rate) and its effect on the CLM (pupal length and average number of eggs per leaf in the field). The results showed that chitosan 400 ppm treatment increased significantly branches length (28.68 cm), number of leaves 21 leaves, infected leaf area (37.50 cm2), leaf thickness 2.033 mm compared to the control (21.03 cm, 10 leaves,27.54 cm2,0.710 mm) respectively. The same treatment increased significantly leaves calcium content (7.1%), leaves water content (62.04%), leaf total soluble sugars and sucrose content ( 48.5 μg/g,1.7mg/g), leaves total minerals content (10%), peroxidase enzyme activity (0.125 mm-l mg -l protein), and reduced leaf damaged part ( 15.69%) compared with the control (2.1%,50.20% 35.8 μg/g, 1.12 mg/g, 3.67%, 0.105 mm-l mg -l protein, 40.08%) respectively. The results showed that the chitosan (300 ppm) treatment enhanced significantly the infected leaves content of salicylic acid (20.505 μg/mg), reducing sugars content (239.6 mg/g) compared with the control (13.818 μg/mg, 140.5mg/g) respectively, while chitosan 200 ppm improved leaves H2O2 content the (2.651 nmol g-1FW), significantly compared with the control (2.618 nmol g-1FW). The results indicated that seedling diameter (4.25 cm), α- free amino acids content (46.3 μg/g) spurred to the control (3 cm, 28.5 μg/g) respectively as a result of Boron 500 ppm treatment. Leaves dry matter (44.84 g), increased significantly as a result of salicylic acid 75ppm, leaves total phenols content. (19.103 mg/g FW), compared with the control (31.83 g, 11.96 mg/g FW) while (50 and 75 ppm) salicylic acid treatments decreased catalase activity(0.221 and 0.253 mmol min-1g-1FW) compared with the control (0.288 mmol min-1g-1FW), and 50 ppm salicylic acid increased polyphenol oxidase enzyme activity (0.877 ΔA/min/g). FW) significantly compared with the control (0.606 ΔA/min/g FW), and decreased leaves temperature (26.95°C) compared to control (30.410 °C). Treatment with silicon (400ppm) improved total chlorophyll content significantly (41.52Spad) Compared with the control (27.26 Spad), and silicon 200 ppm decreased the tunnel length ( 55.3 mm), tunnels number on the lower surface (1.21 tunnels), and on the upper surface too (0.25 tunnels) significantly compared with the control (100.8 mm, 2 tunnels on the lower surface, and 1.5 tunnels on the upper surface) respectively.The treatments did not completely eliminate the insect, despite the delay in the appearance of the infection and depressing it damages but at the end of the season the infection rate reached 100%.