One of the methods of cultivation of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. vulgare (Vill.)Thell.) is to sow the seeds in early winter just before snow covers the ground, and let seeds germinate under the snow and regrow after snow melts. The record for this method of spring wheat cultivation dates back to 1930's, though it was not practiced in general. Troubled by the low yields of the spring-sown wheat and due to the soil-borne diseases of continuous cultivation of winter wheat, sowing of spring wheat in early winter was reattempted by the agricultural extension advisers in 1980's. I analyzed the problems associated with early winter-sown spring wheat so as to make this cultivation method a practicable technology. l examined the effect of sowing dates and nitrogen application on yield and the quality of the produce of conventional spring wheat varieties. I found that the survival of the wheat crop during winter depended on the growth habit of the variety and the soil type. I selected lines that could survive during winter so as to get stable high yield of good quality from early winter-sown spring crop.

In organic farming winter wheat is typically grown after good pre-crops, as it pays well for this in terms of yield and quality. However, winter wheat develops slowly during the autumn, and much nitrate may be lost by leaching before spring. System with catch crops followed by spring wheat, or maybe catch crops intercropped with winter wheat could improve the utilization of the pre-crop effects in wheat cropping. In this experiment we studied wheat and catch crop root growth, crop and soil N dynamics, and effects on yield and baking quality in wheat cropping systems with catch crops. The results showed that the com-bination of catch crops and spring wheat was ideal for resource use, but also that winter wheat had a much deeper root system (c. 2.0 m) than spring wheat (c. 1.0 m), and that the N loss from the winter wheat crops therefore became smaller than expected. Intercropping systems with catch crops and winter wheat showed some promising results, but they are also very difficult to manage.

Imidazolinone-resistant (IR) wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was released for commercial production in portions of the USA in 2002 and has provided growers with a new technology to selectively control winter annual grass weeds. Imidazolinone herbicides inhibit acetolactate synthase (ALS) in susceptible plants; however, IR wheat has an altered target site which confers resistance to these herbicides. The mutation-derived resistance trait of most commercially available IR winter wheat cultivars is located on the D-genome; however, winter and spring wheat cultivars with the resistance trait on the A, B, or D genome or on multiple genomes are currently under development. Four groups of near-isoline wheat with spring or winter growth habit and resistance genes on the B, D, or both B and D genomes were compared for whole plant and ALS enzyme response to imazamox. Biomass accumulation after treatment was similar among B- and D- genome resistant winter wheat biotypes and was always higher than B- and D-genome resistant spring wheat biotypes. D-genome resistant spring wheat was more resistant than B-genome resistant spring wheat and the two-gene resistant spring wheat had an additive level of tolerance to imazamox compared with single-gene resistant spring wheat. Growth habit (spring vs. winter) did not affect in vitro ALS activity among B- or among D-genome resistant cultivars; however, D-genome resistant cultivars had significantly higher in vitro ALS activity in the presence of imazamox compared with B-genome resistant cultivars regardless of growth habit. D-genome resistance appears to provide greater tolerance to imazamox compared with B-genome resistance; however, multiple-genome resistance likely will be required to consistently avoid crop injury in spring wheat from labeled U.S. rates. Although ALS extracted from winter wheat and spring wheat responded similarly to imazamox, whole plant responses demonstrates that tolerance is affected by factors other than resistance gene location.

Resource conservation with respect to nitrogen (N) was compared in organic and conventional cultivation of winter and spring wheat. Sustainability was measured in the nitrogen use efficiency of plant-available N. The amounts of N entering each system and the amounts removed in the harvested crop and remaining as unused mineral nitrogen in the soil at harvest were determined. Net surpluses and losses during the growing season were also monitored, and the environmental variables influencing N harvest in the different cultivation systems were identified. The study was carried out in three different cultivation systems: conventional animal production (CONV), organic animal production (ORG1), and organic cereal production (ORG2). On average for all years and sampling occasions in winter wheat, there were approximately 60 kg more mineral nitrogen left in the soil during the growing season in CONV than in ORG1, and coefficients of variation were higher in CONV. The maximum values were considerably higher in CONV than in ORG1 (p=0.06-0.09), which increased the risk of leaching in the former, particularly in winter wheat cultivation. Nitrogen use efficiency in winter and spring wheat cultivation was 74% in whole crop conventional winter wheat and 81% in organic. Nitrogen use efficiency in harvested winter wheat grain was 44% for CONV and 49% for ORG1. ORG1 spring wheat was as efficient as ORG1 winter wheat, whereas ORG2 spring wheat used 73% of N in the whole crop and 39% in grain. Multivariate regression analysis showed that climate affected CONV and ORG1 winter wheat differently. High temperature in May increased grain yields in ORG1, but the converse was true for CONV. Large unused mineral N reserves at harvest coincided with large N harvest in CONV winter wheat. Residual fertility effects from the preceding crop produced high yields in ORG1 winter and spring wheat but had no effect in CONV. Generally, an increase in N reserves between plant development stages 13 and 31 was positive for both CONV and ORG1 winter wheat. Both winter and spring wheat require most N during this period, so the potential for improvement seems to lie in increasing mineralization (e.g., by intensified weed harrowing early in stage 13 in winter wheat and between stages 13 and 31 in spring wheat). Cultivation of winter wheat in ORG1 was a more efficient use of nitrogen resources than CONV. CONV efficiency could be improved by precision fertilization on each individual field with the help of N analysis before spring tillage and sensor-controlled fertilization.

Evaluation of the impact of different mixtures of two morphologically different varieties of winter triticale and wheat on protein content in grain, protein yield and grain yield was aim of the research. Two winter triticale varieties: Bogo and Fidelio, and winter wheat cv. Almari were taken in the research. Sowing density for pure sowing: a) winter triticale: 450 seeds per square m, and b) wheat: 500 seeds per square m. Density in the mixture of winter triticale: 75, 50 and 25 percent. Grain and protein yields of winter triticale in a pure sowing were significantly higher than the yields of wheat, variety Fidelio yielded better

The field experiment has been caring out on a good rye soil complex with winter wheat planted in various crop successions. The experiment was designed as a split plot in which the 1st factor level was winter wheat and oilseed rape as fore - forecrops. Followed by them six forecrops (spring triticale, oat, yellow lupine, blue lupine, and two intercrops of triticale - lupines) were planted on plots and the winter wheat in their succession. The objective of this study was to compare five forecrops: triticale, two lupines and two intercrops to the stand after oat. The effect of fore-forecrops and forecrops for the winter wheat yield and the grain energy accumulation was investigated. The previous results indicated clearly that the spring triticale - lupine mixtures, as the forecrops are valuable for the winter whet production, especially in permanent cereal succession. Winter wheat responded to this forecrops by increased accumulation of the grain energy. The relations between the type of fore-forecrops and subsequent forecrops were statistically proved. Meanwhile, there were no significant differences between fore-forecrops on the grain yield of winter wheat. The study has been given the assumption that intercropping of spring triticale with lupines may be relevant factor in alleviation of the negative results of permanent cereal succession

Abstract - In organic farming winter wheat is typically grown after good pre-crops, as it pays well for this in terms of yield and quality. However, winter wheat develops slowly during the autumn, and much nitrate may be lost by leaching before spring. System with catch crops followed by spring wheat, or maybe catch crops intercropped with winter wheat could improve the utilization of the pre-crop effects in wheat crop-ping. In this experiment we studied wheat and catch crop root growth, crop and soil N dynamics, and ef-fects on yield and baking quality in wheat cropping systems with catch crops. The results showed that the combination of catch crops and spring wheat increased the yield and decreased the gluten content, but the bread volume was unaffected by the decrease in gluten Intercropping systems with catch crops and winter wheat showed some promising results, but they are also very difficult to manage. The gluten content of winter wheat with intercropping de-creased, however, as for spring wheat the bread vol-ume was relatively higher for intercropping.

Interspecific distinctions on radionuclides accumulation depending on winter, spring wheat varieties and oats, reaching on 137Cs 1,7-3,1 times, on 90Sr - up to 2 times are revealed. Intervarietal distinctions on accumulation 137Cs at a winter wheat-1,7 time, at a spring wheat-1,6 time, at an oats-1,3 time, on accumulation 90Sr at winter wheat-1,1 times, at a spring wheat and at an oats - 1,5-1,6 times are established. Carried out research have allowed to recommend for cultivation in the polluted territories the zoned varieties which to the least degree accumulate radionuclides: a winter wheat - Bylina, Legend, Tsentos; a spring wheat – Kvattro, manu; an oats – Chakal, Dukat and Alph. These varieties can serve as an initial material for the further selection work on varieties breeding, steady against the raised environmental contamination. Varieties cultivation with the least values of factors of transition 137Cs and 90Sr on territories polluted by radionuclides is possible on soils in 1,6 times more polluted, than at varieties cultivation with high parameters of radionuclides transition. Yield, grain quality -protein and gluten was studied. Correlation relationships among transfer coefficients radionuclides 137Cs and 90Sr in grain of varieties, yield and potassium and calcium contents in grain was established.

The aim of this study was observation of effect of two different farming systems (ecological and low-input) and two levels of nitrogen fertilization defined according to the regulations valid for water protection zones (Nl - 50% of permissible dose in protected zone of water resources, N2 - full permissible dose in the protected zone of water resources, i.e. 80 kg N per ha) on grain yield, dry matter and selected energy balance traits of winter wheat variety Astella. In years 1999-2002 the stationary field experiment was established on degraded Chernozem on loess (Luvihaplic Chernozem) in a maize-barley growing region in south-western Slovakia (near Piešťany town) with good content of available potassium, normal content of available phosphorus and high content of available magnesium, with the humus content 1.8 - 2.0 %. The area has a continental climate with the average annual temperature 9.2 degree C and means annual precipitation 593 mm. The experimental field crop (winter wheat, variety Astella) which was integrated into six-field crop rotation: - meadow clover (variety Margot); - winter wheat (variety Torysa) + intercrop; - field pea (variety Olivin); - winter wheat (variety Astella); - potato (variety Eta), fertilizing with farm-yard manure + intercrop; - spring barley (variety Atribut) with underseeding meadow clover (variety Margot). In ecological system winter wheat was dressed by commercial compost named Vitahum (producer EBA Bratislava, Slovakia), in low-input system winter wheat was dressed by nitreform of nitrogen. The rates of phosphorus and potassium were determined on the planned grain yield per hectare: 7 tons of winter wheat, 6 tons of spring barley, 4 tons of field peas, 20 tons of potatoes and 10 tons of clover. Besides the yield height dry matter yield, energy input per hectare and per one ton of production, gross energy per hectare, gross energy gain per hectare, per ton of production and per ton of dry matter, energy efficiency, specific energy consumption and energy effectiveness was observed. Obtained results were evaluated by variance analysis. The results show that yield height and practically all studied parameters were strongly affected by year. Higher grain yield of winter wheat variety Astella at average of four years was in low input farming system than in ecological farming system. In term of energy production rate more stabile and more certain is winter wheat growing in low input system in comparison with ecological system, and higher level of nitrogen fertilization (N2) is also preferable. However, in term of energy efficiency, energy effectiveness and specific energy consumption ecological farming system and lower level of nitrogen fertilization (Nl) appears to be more favourable. Ecological farming system and lower level of nitrogen fertilization has besides production aspect more positive effect on environment. This fact is very hardly quantified but it is important for a good and healthy life. Our results show that both farming systems of winter wheat can be advised for practice, but in term of energy production rate more certain is winter wheat growing in low input farming system. Ecological farming systems have positive effect on living environment.