The sweet potato genebank at the International Potato Center (CIP) maintains 5,526 cultivated I. batatas accessions from 57 countries. Knowledge of the genetic structure in this collection is essential for rational germplasm conservation and utilization. Sixty-nine sweet potato cultivars from 4 geographical regions (including 13 countries) of Latin America were randomly sampled and fingerprinted using AFLP markers. A total of 210 polymorphic and clearly scorable fragments were generated. A geographic pattern of diversity distribution was revealed by mean similarity, multidimensional scaling (MDS), and analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA). The highest genetic diversity was found in Central America, whereas the lowest was in Peru-Ecuador. The within-region variation was the major source of molecular variance. The between-regions variation, although it only explains 10.0% of the total diversity, is statistically significant. Cultivars from Peru-Ecuador, with the lowest level of within region diversity, made the most significant contribution to the between region differentiation. These results support the hypothesis that Central America is the primary center of diversity and most likely the center of origin of sweet potato. Peru-Ecuador should be considered as a secondary center of sweet potato diversity.

The RAPD procedure was used to study genetic diversity of 30 potato (Solanum tuberosum) genotypes, representing mainly Czech potato cultivars. Genomic DNA was isolated by five methods and these techniques were compared. These DNA were used as template in RAPD amplification and no variations in the banding patterns were found between reactions made from various DNA extraction. Some variations between RAPD products were observed when different DNA polymerases were used. Amplification with six decamer primers generated 66 DNA fragments, ranging in size from 178 bp to 1847 bp, of which 46 were polymorphic products. The similarities of RAPD profiles were estimated by the Jaccard`s coefficient and then the data were processed by cluster analysis (UPGMA). Each genotype was identified and distinguished from the others. Our results indicate that RAPD technology is a rapid technique usable for identification of potato genotypes.

Ten geontypes of sweet potato were analysed using SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and isozymes like estarase and peroxidase. SDS-PAGE gave as many as 13-18 protein bands depending on the specificity of genotypes. Electrophoresis of esterase gave 4-6 bands in various genotypes. The isozyme profile of peroxidase was similar for all the genotypes except in band intensity. However, protein polymorphism in SDS-PAGE gave better information on genetic diversity and relationship among the genotypes of the crop.

One of the largest and most diverse clonally propagated potato collections of cultivated potato species is maintained at the International Potato Center (CIP). Almost 75% of this collection isS. tuberosum subsp.andigena (hereafterandigena) cultivars. The first step to select a core collection of this subspecies was to identify duplicate accessions of the same cultivar using comparisons of morphological characters and electrophoretic banding patterns of total proteins and esterases. This reduced the number of accessions in the collection from 10,722 to 2,379. The number of accessions of the same cultivar in the original collection ranged from 1 to 276. This is a report on the selection of a core from the 2,379 morphologically different cultivars using morphological, geographical, and evaluation data. A total of 25 morphological descriptors were scored from all 2,379andigena cultivars. A phenogram was constructed from these data using a simple matching coefficient and the unweighted pair group method using arithmetic averages. We decided to include in the core a proportional sample consisting of approximately the square root of the number of accessions from each first geographical division (state, department, or province) of countries whereandigena was collected. Accessions were chosen first to represent the widest morphological diversity and to maximize geographical representation of the clusters distributed on the main branches of the morphological phenogram. Second, the representative accession of each cluster was also chosen considering data on resistance to diseases and pests, dry matter content, and number of duplicate accessions identified in the original collection. The resulting core has 306 accessions (12.86%) from eight countries from Mexico to Argentina. The full breeding potential of Andean farmerselected potato cultivars that have been maintained for centuries in their center of diversity remains unknown. A thorough evaluation of their reaction to diseases and pests and other desirable traits is now feasible because the selectedandigena core set covers the broadest genetic base that is available in ex situ conservation.

The International Potato Center (CIP), near Lima, Peru, holds one of the largest clonal collections of tetraploid (2n = 4x = 48) Andean farmer selected potato cultivars (Solanum tuberosum L. subsp. andigena Hawks). CIP selected a core collection of 306 Andean cultivars from the 2379 accessions available in the genebank to facilitate the utilization of these genetic resources. Our objective was to investigate the genetic structure in both the entire collection and its respective core subset with nine isozyme markers that have been genetically characterized. Such an analysis provides a means to validate the sampling strategy of the core collection. Allozyme frequencies and average heterozygosity were calculated for each locus investigated. The allozyme frequency distribution for each locus was tested for homogeneity between the entire and core collections by x(2) tests. A total of 38 allozymes were scored in the entire collection. Only two rare allozymes (Idh-1(3) and Pgi-1(5)) with a gene frequency (q) of 0.0002 (or 0.02%) were not included in the core collection. The most frequent allozymes in the entire collection also showed the highest frequencies in the core collection. The allozyme frequency distributions were also homogeneous (P > 0.05) for all loci except for the Pgi-1 and Got-1 loci. Average locus heterozygosity was similar (P > 0.05) between the entire and core collection (49 and 50%, respectively). This analysis suggests that the sampling strategy to develop this core collection of tetraploid Andean potato cultivars was adequate to capture a representative sample of the allozyme loci, because only rare alleles (q < 0.0005 or 0.05%) were lost in the selected core subset. Therefore, this core collection may be an appropriate entry point for researchers who wish to utilize the genetic diversity of this gene pool more efficiently.

Grain Amaranthus has high potential as a source of specially starch with specific functional properties. In addition, the development of high-quality food products from Amaranthus necessitates control of the physical behavior of its starch. We isolated starches from 92 genotypes of 9 Amaranthus species and 31 cultivated Amaramthus genotypes, and tested their physical and functional properties. Starch gels were stored at 4 deg C for 1 and 7 days, then hardness, cohesiveness, and adhesiveness were measured. Apparent amylose content was determined. Thermal properties including gelatinization onset-To, peak-Tp and completion-Tc, and enthalpy (delta H) were measured. A wide range was found in the properties tested among Amaranthus species and among genotypes with the same species. Starch of cultivated genotypes had lower Tp and higher delta H than non-cultivated genotypes, the starch pastes of cultivated genotypes were more stable during cold storage. The interrelationships of functional and thermal properties of Amaranthus starch were analyzed. Compared to the reference maize, rice, potato and wheat starches, Amaranthus starch tended to have higher Tp and delta H, and Amaranthus starch gels were more resistant to cold storage. The wide genetic diversity necessitates specific choices for specific uses.

For a long time, the genetic resources and biological diversity of all types of living organisms on the Earth were considered the common heritage of all of humanity. However, there have always been great imbalances in the distribution of this natural wealth. The economically most interesting original regions in terms of agriculturally useful plants are primarily in the countries of the south. The countries of the north, relatively poor in species variety, exhibited great interest in the acquisition of plant genetic resources as early as the 18th and 19th centuries – for strategic and other reasons. However, until the 20th century, the primary topic of interest was in developing new species rather than varieties within a given species. By using them throughout the millennia, coupled with targeted selection and adaptation to existent conditions, farmers worldwide have developed a great deal of variety within species. In India, for example, there were more than 30,000 varieties of rice in the mid-20th century. This multitude, developed throughout many years, is of crucial importance for the ability to adapt to future environmental conditions, continued development of varieties, and breeding to resist against disease and pests. Modern, high-technology breeding builds on that gene pool as well. Simultaneously, however, modern breeding and the accompanying varieties protection laws in the Western industrialized countries have led to a decrease in this multitude of agricultural varieties; in some cases drastic. As early as the 1970s, the U.S. Academy of Sciences stated that “the process represents a paradox of social and economic development, in that the product of technology (breeding of high-yield and uniform varieties) destroys the resources upon which technology builds” (1978, cited by Flitner 1995). Primarily for the colonial powers, botanical gardens played a key role, and served as collection points to transport useful plants between the continents and to build up or break down monopolies on products of plant origin. Until the 1980s in Germany and other countries, large-scale collective imports led to those countries maintenance of large stocks of potato, carrot and barley varieties; some at private breeding companies and some at state-established gene banks. Now more than ever, these collections are of incalculable value. They represent the current storage of raw materials of the genetic technology industry and of private plant breeders. An added advantage is that profit sharing with the indigenous farmers who have cultivated these varieties and species is normally not necessary, since the varieties were taken to the industrialized countries long before the effective date of the Convention on Biological Diversity. In 1992 at the environmental summit in Rio de Janeiro, the Convention on Biological Diversity was finally approved to work against the erosion of genetic diversity within species which accompanies the intensification of breeding and the global success of high-yield varieties, as well as the general loss of species occasioned by industrialization and environmental pollution, all of which have taken on dangerous proportions since the 1950s. This was the first internationally binding agreement obligating all member countries to undertake measures to protect biological diversity. By mid-1999, the Convention had been signed by 175 countries. As such, the Convention has more member countries than the World Trade Organization (134). Partially due to intensive lobbying by the American biotechnology industry, the USA have thus far not become a signatory to the Convention. As early as 1983, an international agreement was reached under the leadership of FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), which specifically addresses the conservation of plant genetic resources. However, the “International Undertaking for Plant Genetic Resources” is thus far not yet legally binding. It was decided in 1993 to revise the document. The technology conference, which took place in Leipzig in 1996 and was organized within the scope of the “Undertaking,” represented an important step toward integrating these two international agreements. The revisions are due to be completed by the end of 2000, and will lead to a legally binding agreement which will possibly become a part of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The adoption of the Biosafety Protocol in January 2000, which regulates the international trade in genetically modified organisms, for the first time clarified the relationship between an agreement under the Convention on Biological Diversity and the WTO and GATT agreements. It was agreed that the two agreements would stand alongside one another and be given equal weight. The agreements discussed briefly herein represent the primary international instruments and forums which address and debate the status of biological diversity and appropriate ways to deal with it. The interests of the industrialized and developing countries clash sharply in this respect, and non-governmental organizations worldwide are fighting for effective preservation endeavors, and for a sustainable use of biological diversity which deserves description with that adjective. In the following, these various agreements will be introduced briefly and their most important statements will be summarized. This will make clear which contra-dictions and discordant aspects exist between the various agreements as well as the focus of the current political debate. We conclude with a short introduction of selected actors among the non-govern-mental organizations, some of which have had great success in their yearlong work for the preservation of biological diversity, against patents on life, and for self-determined and sustainable use of these valuable resources.