Durum Wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) Grain Yield and Protein Estimation by Multispectral UAV Monitoring and Machine Learning Under Mediterranean Conditions

Durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.), among the herbaceous crops, is one of the most extensively grown in the Mediterranean area due to its fundamental role in supporting typical food productions like bread, pasta, and couscous. Among the environmental and technical aspects, nitrogen (N) fertilization is crucial to shaping plant development and that of kernels by also affecting their protein concentration. Today, new techniques for monitoring fields using uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) can detect crop multispectral (MS) responses, while advanced machine learning (ML) models can enable accurate predictions. However, to date, there is still little research related to the prediction of the N nutritional status and its effects on the productivity of durum wheat grown in the Mediterranean environment through the application of these techniques. The present research aimed to monitor the MS responses of two different wheat varieties, one ancient (Timilia) and one modern (Ciclope), grown under three different N fertilization regimens (0, 60, and 120 kg N ha&minus:1), and to estimate their quantitative and qualitative production (i.e., grain yield and protein concentration) through the Pearson&rsquo:s correlations and five different ML approaches. The results showed the difficulty of obtaining good predictive results with Pearson&rsquo:s correlation for both varieties of data merged together and for the Timilia variety. In contrast, for Ciclope, several vegetation indices (VIs) (i.e., CVI, GNDRE, and SRRE) performed well (r-value &gt: 0.7) in estimating both productive parameters. The implementation of ML approaches, particularly random forest (RF) regression, neural network (NN), and support vector machine (SVM), overcame the limitations of correlation in estimating the grain yield (R2 &gt: 0.6, RMSE = 0.56 t ha&minus:1, MAE = 0.43 t ha&minus:1) and protein (R2 &gt: 0.7, RMSE = 1.2%, MAE 0.47%) in Timilia, whereas for Ciclope, the RF approach outperformed the other predictive methods (R2 = 0.79, RMSE = 0.56 t ha&minus:1, MAE = 0.44 t ha&minus:1).