Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Particles Using Cladophora glomerata L. (Kütz) Extract: Comparative Study of Crystal Structure, Surface Chemistry, and Antimicrobial Efficacy with Different Zinc Precursors

This study examined the eco-friendly synthesis of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles using Cladophora glomerata extracts as reducing and stabilizing agents, comparing zinc acetate and zinc chloride precursors for biomedical and environmental applications. Zinc acetate-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles showed a significant absorption peak around 320&ndash:330 nm, indicating stable, quasi-spherical ZnO nanoparticles with a narrow size distribution, primarily around 100 nm. Zeta potential measurements revealed a value of &minus:25 mV for these particles, suggesting moderate colloidal stability. XRD analysis confirmed a highly crystalline hexagonal wurtzite structure for zinc acetate-derived ZnO, and SEM images supported a proper microstructure with approximately 2 &micro:m particle size. FTIR analysis indicated higher-quality ZnO from zinc acetate due to the absence of moisture and hydroxyl groups. Conversely, zinc chloride-derived ZnO particles displayed a broader absorption spectrum around 370 nm, indicative of significant aggregation. Their narrower zeta potential distribution around +10 mV suggested diminished colloidal stability and a heightened aggregation tendency. While a peak around 100 nm was observed, many particles exceeded 1000 nm, reaching up to 10,000 nm. XRD results showed that zinc chloride adversely affected crystallinity, and SEM analysis indicated smaller particles (approx. 1 &micro:m). FTIR analysis demonstrated that zinc chloride samples retained hydroxyl groups. Both zinc acetate- and zinc chloride-derived ZnO nanoparticles produced notable inhibitory zones against Gram-positive (L. monocytogenes, S. aureus) and specific Gram-negative bacteria (E. coli, K. pneumoniae). Zinc acetate-derived ZnO showed a 21 mm inhibitory zone against P. vulgaris, while zinc chloride-derived ZnO showed a 10.1 mm inhibitory zone against C. albicans. Notably, zinc chloride-derived ZnO exhibited broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. MIC readings indicated that zinc acetate-derived ZnO had better antibacterial properties at lower concentrations, such as 3.125 &micro:g/mL against L. monocytogenes. These findings emphasize that the precursor material selection critically influences particle characteristics, including optical properties, surface charge, and colloidal stability.