Contextualizing a hapiness index as a measure of potability of water in a rural area of South Africa

PhDRDV

Institute for Rural Development

For the health and wellbeing of people, access to high-quality, safe water is essential. However, safe water access is an international concern. According to United Nations Water, an estimated 3.6 billion people lack access to safely managed sanitation, while an estimated 2.3 billion people lack access to safe water (UN Water, 2023). Rural communities continue to lag in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 targets on ensuring safe water access for all. This situation is in direct contradiction with the Free Water Policy of South Africa which adopted the World Health Organization (WHO) standard that everyone should have access to at least 25 litres per day of safe drinking water within a 200metre radius (WHO, 2020). Without a regular supply of Municipal treated tap water, the only viable option in water scarce rural communities is to rely on ground water sources. Groundwater has historically been perceived to be safe; unexposed and hardly compromised as opposed to surface water. Due to factors such as a generally increasing water groundwater is now the most feasible option for a large part of the new water demand (Grönwall and Danert, 2020). This study revealed that both rural communities rely on borehole, tap and natural spring water for human consumption but are generally unhappy about the quality and inaccessibility of safe drinking water sources. However adequate understanding of groundwater contamination is normally far beyond reach of non-professionals. Thus, it was necessary for the researcher to collect groundwater samples for standard laboratory tests to check for contaminants that are not visible to consumers. The results revealed the following in both Ngwenani and HaMagomani with respect to borehole, tap and natural spring water: With respect to Chloride and Fluoride, the water is safe for drinking as both chemical constituents were either within normal ranges or below detection levels. However, with respect to Nitrate; Bromide; Phosphate; Sulphate and pH high percentages above permissible limits were recorded, indicating contamination thus making the water unsafe for human consumption. The results conclusively showed that groundwater sources are not safe and were in sync with consumer judgements that indicated unhappiness with the aesthetic properties such as odour, taste, smell or sediments. Only about 10% of the consumers in Ngwenani and Magomani have access to basic water services. While a staggering 90% has no access whatsoever and relies on ground water (natural springs and boreholes) or buying borehole water for those without boreholes. Consumers in Ngwenani and Magomani are not happy with the quality of water they drink daily and their lack of access to basic water services. Consumers are not happy about the aesthetic properties of the water they drink, such as taste; smell; colour and sediments. This is based on the responses of the representative sample population or participants in this research. Water quality can vary greatly, and consumer judgments of water quality can differ from official quality assessments. The concept of happiness has gained increasing attention as a measure of well-being and quality of life. This study explored the concept of happiness as a measure of quality with respect to drinking water in rural communities of South Africa. Then identified constructs of a happiness index based on consumer judgments of water quality, with the goal of developing a comprehensive and valid measure of happiness related to water quality. These consumer judgements based on indigenous knowledge were analysed and super imposed on international and national drinking water guidelines and found to be in sync with standard laboratory testing. The specific objectives that underpinned the research were: (a) To analyse the results of perceived quality of tap, borehole and natural spring water through standard laboratory tests. (b) To examine perceived satisfaction with sources and quality of delivery of potable water. (c) To determine the criteria children, youth and adults use to assess suitability of water for drinking. (d) To examine the measures rural households, take to make unsuitable water safe for drinking. (e) To suggest constructs of a happiness index based on the community’s view on their potable water. Several community engagement sessions were held to collect, analyse and validate standard laboratory test findings with the grassroots community perceptions on the quality of water that they drink daily. This study applied the Creswell (2013) explanatory sequential mixed method design. Various participatory research techniques such as in-depth individual interviews; Focus Group Discussions (FGDs); storytelling and participatory observation were used to collect qualitative data for the same reason. Qualitative data was analysed using thematic content analysis and Atlas.TI for FGD derived data and observation results. Data was coded from in-depth individual interviews through ranking of attributes by source using ANOVA. On quantitative data, there was physical and chemical analysis of contaminants from the Standard Laboratory testing of samples from the main sources tap, borehole and natural springs. Further analysis was informed by comparing concentration results of chemical and physical contaminants in collected samples from tap; borehole; natural spring water with South Africa National Standards (SANS) and international World Health Organizations (WHO) guidelines on permissible limits in safe drinking water. Laboratory test results of water samples drawn from natural springs in Magomani and Ngwenani villages of Vhembe District revealed that they are contaminated with respect to Nitrate, Phosphate and Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC). Results of laboratory tests of water samples drawn from public taps in Magomani and Ngwenani villages of Vhembe District showed that the water is heavily contaminated with respect to nitrate, phosphate and DOC. The temperature of tap and borehole water samples from both villages is above normal according to international standards. Therefore, the water in both villages is not aesthetically pleasing to drink or quench thirst. Also, results of laboratory tests of water samples drawn from boreholes in Magomani and Ngwenani villages of Vhembe District uncovered that Nitrate and DOC concentration levels are above normal. The main drinking water sources, generally perceived to be safe in both communities are contaminated and the water is unsafe for human consumption. Both communities are unhappy with the available drinking water. They rely on visual assessment to assess water quality by checking aesthetic qualities such as colour odour, presence or absence of sediments and taste. Focus Group Discussions held on treatment of water assessed as unsuitable for drinking, revealed methods consumers use such as boiling, storing and sedimentation, household slow stone filter and domestic chlorination. Domestic chlorination ranked as least common while boiling was the most common home water treatment strategy. These coping strategies were shared and recorded during the In-depth individual interviews and community Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). These Household Water Treatment (HWT) options are believed by consumers to reduce contamination such as waterborne pathogens sufficiently to protect health. HWT methods shared by participants of the study ranged from scientific to cultural or traditional local customs. The problem is without sufficient potable water, rural communities in Ngwenani and Magomani cannot thrive; they are being exposed to water borne diseases, are failing to sustain healthy societies, maintain human dignity and have no improved quality of life. Consumers are exposed to unsafe water, there is no tool to measure water quality in rural homes, yet every single day, children, youths and adults must make an informed decision or assessment of the potability of the water they drink. Consumers often use visual assessment as a basis to pronounce water as either suitable or unsuitable for drinking (WHO, 2006). Regardless of using methods such as visual assessment of water to assess potability, dysentery and diarrhoea have a 20% higher incidence in South African rural areas, as compared to urban areas and its severity in some instances leads to death among residents, which medical reports attribute to strong microbial, chemical, or faecal water contaminants (Cole R. , 2017). Therefore, clean and safe water for drinking remains a sustainable development challenge in Ngwenani and HaMagomani. To construct a happiness index based on consumer judgments of water, a combination of objective and subjective measures can be used. This involves integrating scientific assessments of water quality with consumer perceptions to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the quality of water for drinking. This study suggests both objective and subjective measures as constructs, for a contextualised happiness index. Developing constructs for a happiness index with respect to water quality in rural areas of South Africa will help in the creation of a contextualised tool to evaluate the quality of water used in rural areas for drinking and cooking; help the South African government reach SDG 6 targets as it has a mirror image of the views of local rural folk on the quality of water they use daily; educate communities on the consequences of using unsafe water and map the population that is unable to access safe water. Active involvement of communities helped tailor the constructs of a Happiness Index with respect to water according to consumer needs and preferences. This confirmed that postgraduate degree research can be channelled to engage communities in finding solutions to community identified challenges. An improvement in water service delivery would increase their happiness levels.

NRF