Fire Vulnerability, Resilience, and Recovery Rates of Mediterranean Pine Forests Using a 33-Year Time Series of Satellite Imagery

The modification of fire regimes and their impact on vegetation recovery, soil properties, and fuel structure are current key research areas that attempt to identify the thresholds of vegetation’ssusceptibility to wildfires. This study aimed to evaluate the vulnerability of Mediterranean pine forests (Pinus halepensis Mill. and Pinus pinaster Aiton) to wildfires, analyzing two major forest firesthat occurred in Yeste (Spain) in 1994 and 2017, affecting over 14,000 and 3200 hectares, respectively.Four recovery regions were identified based on fire severity—calculated using the delta Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR) index—and recurrence: areas with high severity in 2017 but not in 1994 (UB94-HS17), areas with high severity in 1994 but not in 2017 (HS94-UB17), areas with high severity in both fires (HS94-HS17), and areas unaffected by either fire (UB94-UB17). The analysis focused onexamining the recovery patterns of three spectral indices—the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Moisture Index (NDMI), and Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR)—using theGoogle Earth Engine platform from 1990 to 2023. Additionally, the Relative Recovery Indicator (RRI), the Ratio of Eighty Percent (R80P), and the Year-on-Year average (YrYr) metrics were computed toassess the spectral recovery rates by region. These three spectral indices showed similar dynamic responses to fire. However, the Mann–Kendall and unit root statistical tests revealed that the NDVIand NDMI exhibited distinct trends, particularly in areas with recurrence (HS94-HS17). The NDVI outperformed the NBR and NDMI in distinguishing variations among regions. These results suggestaccelerated vegetation spectral regrowth in the short term. The Vegetation Recovery Capacity After Fire (VRAF) index showed values from low to moderate, while the Vulnerability to Fire (V2FIRE)index exhibited values from medium to high across all recovery regions. These findings enhance our understanding of how vegetation recovers from fire and how vulnerable it is to fire.