An evaluation of the efficacy of radium isotopes as tracers of submarine groundwater discharge to southern Rhode Island's coastal ponds

Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) represents a significant flux of water and chemical constituents to coastal regions. Because ²²⁶Ra and ²²⁸Ra are highly concentrated in groundwater relative to surface water, and their signal is well-integrated throughout coastal surface waters, these isotopes have been increasingly utilized to quantify SGD over the past several decades. In this study, a combined radium and salt balance is used to yield estimates of fresh and saline SGD to four of Rhode Island's coastal ponds (Winnapaug, Quonochontaug, Ninigret, and Point Judith Ponds). Fresh SGD rates determined for each pond range between 0 and 17Lm⁻²d⁻¹. These values largely fall in line with previous estimates made using hydrologic models. The uncertainty of saline SGD estimates for each pond is high; minimum and maximum saline SGD estimates differ by as much as three orders of magnitude. These results echo the discrepancy between two previous radium-based studies from this location. The variability of dissolved radium in the Rhode Island coastal aquifer plays a large role in the uncertainty of these saline SGD estimates. Groundwater dissolved radium activity is dependent upon many different factors, including groundwater salinity and redox conditions, sediment thorium and radium activities, and the amount of time to which the sediment has been exposed to saline groundwater. Due to the heterogeneous nature of glacial outwash sediments, none of these parameters are likely consistent throughout the aquifer in this location. Groundwater ²²⁶Ra and ²²⁸Ra activities in the coastal ponds vary significantly both laterally and with sediment depth. For example, groundwater samples collected in Ninigret Pond separated by a vertical distance of only 5cm differ by as much as 3×10³dpm100L⁻¹ for both ²²⁶Ra and ²²⁸Ra. The results from this study indicate that a single groundwater sample or suite of samples may not accurately reflect the average radium activity of the groundwater actually discharging into each pond. Targeted sampling in areas where SGD is qualitatively observed can potentially remedy this problem.