Chemical characteristics of groundwater and assessment of groundwater quality in Varaha River Basin, Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh, India

Study on chemical characteristics of groundwater and impacts of groundwater quality on human health, plant growth, and industrial sector is essential to control and improve the water quality in every part of the country. The area of the Varaha River Basin is chosen for the present study, where the Precambrian Eastern Ghats underlain the Recent sediments. Groundwater quality is of mostly brackish and very hard, caused by the sources of geogenic, anthropogenic, and marine origin. The resulting groundwater is characterized by Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ : [Formula: see text] > Cl− > [Formula: see text], Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ : [Formula: see text] > Cl− > [Formula: see text] > [Formula: see text], Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ : [Formula: see text] > Cl−, and Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ : Cl− > [Formula: see text] > [Formula: see text] facies, following the topographical and water flow-path conditions. The genetic geochemical evolution of groundwater ([Formula: see text] and Cl−–[Formula: see text] types under major group of [Formula: see text]) and the hydrogeochemical signatures (Na+/Cl−, >1 and [Formula: see text]/Cl−, <1) indicate that the groundwater is of originally fresh quality, but is subsequently modified to brackish by the influences of anthropogenic and marine sources, which also supported by the statistical analysis. The concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS), TH, Mg2+, Na+, K+, [Formula: see text], Cl−, [Formula: see text], and F− are above the recommended limits prescribed for drinking water in many locations. The quality of groundwater is of mostly moderate in comparison with the salinity hazard versus sodium hazard, the total salt concentration versus percent sodium, the residual sodium carbonate, and the magnesium hazard, but is of mostly suitable with respect to the permeability index for irrigation. The higher concentrations of TDS, TH, [Formula: see text], Cl−, and [Formula: see text] in the groundwater cause the undesirable effects of incrustation and corrosion in many locations. Appropriate management measures are, therefore, suggested to improve the groundwater quality.