Field measurements of PM2.5 infiltration factor and portable air cleaner effectiveness during wildfire episodes in US residences

Wildfires have frequently occurred in the western United States (US) during the summer and fall seasons in recent years. This study measures the PM₂.₅ infiltration factor in seven residences recruited from five dense communities in Seattle, Washington, during a 2020 wildfire episode and evaluates the impacts of HEPA-based portable air cleaner (PAC) use on reducing indoor PM₂.₅ levels. All residences with windows closed went through an 18-to-24-h no filtration session, with five of seven following that period with an 18-to-24-h filtration session. Auto-mode PACs, which automatically adjust the fan speed based on the surrounding PM₂.₅ levels, were used for the filtration session. 10-s resolved indoor PM₂.₅ levels were measured in each residence's living room, while hourly outdoor levels were collected from the nearest governmental air quality monitoring station to each residence. Additionally, a time-activity diary in minute resolution was collected from each household. With the impacts of indoor sources excluded, indoor PM₂.₅ mass balance models were developed to estimate the PM₂.₅ indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios, PAC effectiveness, and decay-related parameters. Among the seven residences, the mean infiltration factor ranged from 0.33 (standard deviation [SD]: 0.06) to 0.76 (SD: 0.05). The use of auto-mode PAC led to a 48%–78% decrease of indoor PM₂.₅ levels after adjusting for outdoor PM₂.₅ levels and indoor sources. The mean (SD) air exchange rates ranged from 0.30 (0.13) h⁻¹ to 1.41 (3.18) h⁻¹ while the PM₂.₅ deposition rate ranged from 0.10 (0.54) h⁻¹ to 0.49 (0.47) h⁻¹. These findings suggest that staying indoors, a common protective measure during wildfire episodes, is insufficient to prevent people's excess exposure to wildfire smoke, and provides quantitative evidence to support the utilization of auto-mode PACs during wildfire events in the US.