Effects of straw returning levels on carbon footprint and net ecosystem economic benefits from rice-wheat rotation in central China

Straw returning usually gives rise to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the soil, and thus negatively affects carbon footprint (CF) of crop production. Numerous studies reported the effects of straw returning on the CF from single crop production. However, little is known about the integrated effects of different levels of straw returning on the CF and net ecosystem economic benefits (NEEB) from rice-wheat rotation. Here, we investigated the effects of different amounts of straw returning on soil CH₄ and N₂O emissions, GHG emissions from agricultural inputs (AIGHG), CF, and NEEB from a 2-year cycle of rice-wheat rotation. The CF was determined based on the total GHG emissions associated with crop production inputs and services. Overall, straw returning significantly increased annual CH₄ emissions by 5.4–72.2% and reduced annual N₂O emissions by 3.3–31.4% compared with straw removal. Straw returning remarkably increased rice grain yields by 8.1–9.9% and wheat grain yields by 10.2–21.1% compared with straw removal. The average annual AIGHG from rice-wheat rotation ranged from 3579 to 4987 kg CO₂-eq ha–¹. Diesel consumption played a dominant role in the AIGHG. The annual CF ranged from 0.96 to 1.31 kg CO₂-eq kg–¹ and increased with increasing straw returning amounts. The NEEB, which ranged from 14161 to 17413 CNY ha–¹, was significantly affected by the levels of straw returning. The treatment with returning of 1/3 of preceding crop straw to the field (2.19–2.47 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ of rice straw in the wheat season and 1.38–1.68 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ of wheat straw in the rice season) resulted in relatively higher grain yield, the lowest CF, and the highest NEEB among all treatments, and thus can reduce CF, and increase grain yields and NEEB, and thus can be recommended as a sustainable approach to mitigate GHG emissions and increase economic benefits from rice-wheat rotation.