The genetic structure and mating system of a recovered Chinese pangolin population (Manis pentadactyla Linnaeus, 1758) as inferred by microsatellite markers

Pangolins are the most trafficked mammalian species in the world and have recently been transferred from Appendix II to Appendix I in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), due to poaching and international population decline. Given their principally solitary, elusive, and typically nocturnal behaviours, detailed ecological information is lacking. An understanding of their genetic structure and mating system is required to provide effective conservation strategies for the remaining wild populations. In this study, we assessed the discrimination power of microsatellites. We subsequently evaluated the genetic diversity and mating system of a restored Chinese pangolin population (Manis pentadactyla) inhabiting the southern Coastal Mountain Range, Taiwan. A total of 54 pangolins (29 males and 25 females) were captured between 2009 and 2013 within a 10 km² area and genotyped using ten microsatellite markers. The cumulative probabilities of identifying unrelated individuals and siblings in these microsatellites were 1.83 × 10⁻⁷ and 1.01 × 10⁻³, respectively, indicating that these markers can be applied to population genetics, parentage, and forensics studies. A low level of genetic diversity and heterozygote deficiency were observed, which is likely due to over-exploitation, and harvesting for use in leather between 1950 and 1980. Bottleneck analysis also revealed that the population had experienced a demographic bottleneck. Mantel tests for isolation-by-distance, revealed a non-significant correlation between genetic and geographic distances for all individuals (R = 0.04, P = 0.24). The mating system analysis showed that Chinese pangolins are primarily polygynous and certain females exhibit a lack in mate fidelity. We also observed that female pangolins can reproduce during consecutive years. Our first-ever observations of a Chinese pangolin population have substantially contributed to the development of effective conservation strategies and restorative actions in Chinese pangolin populations.