Utilisation and limitations of pseudocereals (quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat) in food production: A review

Pseudocereals, especially quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat, have attracted an increasing amount of attention because of their nutritive and health-benefiting properties, and their suitability for people suffering from coeliac disease and gluten intolerance. However, the utilisation of pseudocereals is hampered by the presence of anti-nutritional compounds (phytates and saponins) and/or substances that yield a bitter taste in the seeds, the latter of which must be minimised before or during food processing, consequently increasing the cost and risk of environmental contamination. The objective of this review is to analyse issues relating to the use of pseudocereals in food production, including: i) technological limits in the food industry; ii) agronomic limitations to pseudocereal cultivation and distribution; iii) technological and biotechnological tools for addressing these issues; and iv) socio-economic and ethical implications of extensive cultivation. Although pseudocereals have great potential for use in the food industry, they cannot completely replace true cereals due to the presence of compounds that confer undesirable organoleptic and technological characteristics to their products. As the growth in pseudocereal cultivation, especially that of quinoa, remains largely restricted to the nations in which the pseudocereals originated, it is imperative that the excessive exploitation of resources be avoided in these areas. Moreover, the improvement of the socio-economic conditions of small farmers is necessary, since they manage the germplasm of these species. Biotechnologies are valuable tools for exploiting the considerable diversity of these species for breeding programs aimed to improve palatable, technological and agronomic characteristics.