Knowledge of copper (Cu) requirements, absorption, and transport and of the biological roles of Cu has accumulated over the past 60 years, but it is not possible to relate all the effects of deficiency to specific Cu functions. The current understanding of the roles of Cu is based on the functions of the known Cu enzymes plus copper's role in the disulfide bonding of keratin. Copper deficiency has been demonstrated in only a small number of patients. The causes of the deficiency include severe malnutrition, parenteral nutrition, prematurity and oral zinc supplements. The effects of copper deficiency include anemia, neutropenia, osteoporosis and arthritis.
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