Pollen- and Weather-Based Machine Learning Models for Estimating Regional Olive Production

The olive tree is one of the most common type of cultivation in the Mediterranean area, having high economic and social importance. The Alentejo region, Portugal, is an area with a high presence of olive groves, which in 2022 accounted for 201,474 hectares. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between olive pollen, weather data, and olive tree production, between the years 2002 and 2022. Pollen data were obtained from an urban station located in Évora, in the Alentejo region, and were used to calculate several metrics, such as the Pollen Season Duration (PSD), Seasonal Pollen Index (SPIn), peak value, and weekly pollen accumulation values. Monthly minimum, maximum, and mean temperature and precipitation sums were obtained from the E-OBS observational dataset. Considering the relationship between pollen/weather and olive production, mutual information and correlation analyses were conducted. Subsequently, several machine learning algorithms were trained using pollen and weather datasets, and we obtained suitable forecast models for olive tree production after cross-validation. The results showed high variability in pollen concentrations in Évora over the years. Complex associations were found, with certain weeks of pollen accumulation showing significant mutual information with olive production, particularly during June. The analyzed linear correlation coefficients remained generally low, underscoring the challenge of predicting olive production based on linear relationships. Among the machine learning algorithms employed to predict olive production, Decision Trees, Extreme Gradient Boosting, and Gradient Boosting Regressor were the most robust performers (r² > 0.70), while linear models displayed a subpar performance (r² < 0.5), emphasizing the complexity of this approach. These models highlight the roles of maximum and minimum temperatures during March and May and pollen accumulation during the second half of June. The developed models may be used as decision-support tools by growers and stakeholders to further enhance the sustainability of the thriving olive sector in southern Portugal.