Cultural ecosystem services provided by mountain landscapes - understanding recreational preferences: A case study of Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park and buffer zone, Everest region, Nepal : A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Natural Resources Management and Ecological Engineering at Lincoln University

Cultural ecosystem services [CES] are non material benefits that humans receive from the natural environment. They are often characterized as intangible, subjective and difficult to quantify. People can enjoy direct benefits of CES through recreational activities. Tourism and recreation have been argued to provide positive disposition towards the protection of ecosystems and motivation for the management of human-nature interactions. Over the years, mountain regions have emerged as popular tourist destinations due to their spectacular landscapes, natural and cultural features, and amenity values. Pristine mountain environments offer visitors physical, social and psychological benefits. While much of the research work in CES focuses on assessment and mapping of cultural service values using quantitative approaches, there is paucity of literature that focuses on subjective nature of recreational preferences in mountain regions. This research therefore aims to explore recreational preferences of the significant stakeholders (visitors and local residents) in Sagarmatha National Park and its Buffer Zone [SNPBZ], Nepal. Q method is a robust research method for the subjective study of a range and diversity of perspectives, shared viewpoints & experiences, through thematic identification and analysis. The main strength of this method is that it generates rich data and provides a robust result from relatively small number of participants through the integration of quantitative analysis with qualitative interpretation. A set of 30 images widely representing recreational features/conditions was Q sorted by international visitors to SNPBZ and local residents. The Q sort data were factor analysed using principal component analysis followed by varimax rotation in the PQMethod software program. Using Q method, three distinct factors emerged across visitors. They are ‘superlative scenery seekers’, who have strong preferences for ‘wild and scenic nature’; ‘culturally curious visitors’ who have strong preferences for ‘culture within nature’; and ‘freedom finders’, who have strong preferences for ‘mountains as a space for freedom’. Similarly, two distinct factors emerged across local residents. They include ‘recreational enthusiasts’, who have preferences for ‘local culture with nature’; and ‘recreational pragmatists’ who have preferences for ‘facilities and infrastructure’. The study also found that two significant stakeholders share a common viewpoint to the issues such as seasonal overcrowding, stray dogs, donkeys/mules, solid waste and degraded trail which are evolving as ‘reputational risks’ to SNPBZ. It is expected that the research results will inform concerned authorities, including local government and park management, of the dimensions along which tourism development plans and park management strategies might evolve.