Novel and legacy per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in major wastewater treatment plants within the Lake Victoria basin, East Africa
2025
Ashirafu Miiro | Edward Mubiru | Oghenekaro Nelson Odume | Silver Odongo | George William Nyakairu | Henry Matovu | Charles Drago Kato | Ivan Špánik | Mika Sillanpää | Douglas Sifuna | Liudmyla Khvalbota | Patrick Ssebugere
Over the past two decades, rapid urbanization and industrialization in Uganda have generated wastewater containing emerging contaminants including per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). This study assessed PFASs contamination of wastewater from Bugolobi (Kampala) and Kirinya (Jinja) wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) by analyzing 80 influent and effluent samples for 15 PFASs using LC-MS/MS. We quantified 10 PFASs, with levels ranging from non-detectable (n.d) up to 372.4 ng/L (mean: 20.94 ± 0.42 ng/L). At Bugolobi WWTP, influent levels ranged from n.d to 190.01 ng/L (60.85 ± 1.03 ng/L) while effluents varied from n.d to 372.4 ng/L (237.91 ± 7.06 ng/L). At Kirinya WWTP, influent levels ranged from n.d to 29.37 ng/L (17.58 ± 3.54 ng/L) and effluents up to 30.21 ng/L (7.79 ± 0.85 ng/L). Short-chain PFASs (PFBS, PFBA) were more predominant, suggesting their possible use or degradation of the long-chain PFASs. Total mass loadings were higher at Bugolobi WWTP (5353.56 mg/day), serving the more densely populated Kampala, than at Kirinya WWTP (93.62 mg/day). PFSAs exhibited higher removal (72.45 % Bugolobi; 36.45 % Kirinya) than PFCAs (−127.38 % Bugolobi; −20.50 % Kirinya), which could be attributed to their stronger hydrophobic adsorption and partial biodegradation. Bugolobi, with ⁓82.59 % total removal outperformed Kirinya (∼25.19 %) due to its advanced conventional treatment. Ecological risk assessment revealed higher risks at lower trophic levels at Bugolobi compared to Kirinya, likely due to lower influx and partial mitigation by its pond-based system. These findings highlight the role of WWTPs as critical point sources of PFASs, posing ecological risks to aquatic ecosystems.
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