Passive protection provided by sows inoculated with the virulent Miller strain of transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), or the ISU-1 strain of porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV), or both was evaluated in nursing pigs challenge exposed with virulent TGEV. Four sows (group B) were inoculated with PRCV oronasally twice at 4 and 2 weeks before parturition; 1 sow (group C) was inoculated similarly, but in 2 subsequent pregnancies; and 2 sows (group D) were oronasally primed with PRCV at 4 weeks before parturition, and 2 weeks later were administered a booster inoculation of virulent TGEV. Two additional sows (group E) remained uninoculated and served as seronegative controls, and 1 sow (group A) that had been naturally infected with TGEV served as a seropositive control. The degree of passive immunity transferred by these sows to their litters was assessed by challenge exposing the pigs of sows in groups BE (only the second litter of group C) with virulent TGEV at 3 to 5 days of age. After challenge exposure, clinical signs of infection and mortality were noted and fecal and nasal shedding of virus was assessed by ELISA. The IgA, IgG, and IgM antibody titers to TGEV were quantified in colostrum and milk of the sows by use of an isotype-specific monoclonal antibody-capture ELISA, using biotinylated monoclonal antibodies against each porcine isotype as detecting reagents. A plaque-reduction assay was used to quantify neutralizing antibody titers in serum, colostrum, milk, and fractionated whey (IgG and IgA/IgM). In the sow naturally infected with TGEV (group A), there was a pronounced decrease in IgG antibody titers to TGEV in the transition from colostrum to milk, and IgA TGEV antibodies became predominant, with high titers maintained throughout lactation. The 4 group-B sows partially protected their pigs after TGEV challenge exposure; mean mortality was 67%, compared with 100% in pigs suckling the 2 TGEV seronegative control sows (group-E litters). Although IgA TGEV antibodies were detected in colostrum and milk of group-B sows, IgG TGEV antibodies were the most abundant. The sow of group C had a marked increase in IgA TGEV antibody titers in colostrum and milk after reinoculation with PRCV during the second pregnancy, before TGEV challenge exposure of the litter. Its pigs were passively protected to a high degree after TGEV challenge exposure (27% litter mortality). The sows in group D, primed with PRCV and boosted with TGEV, provided the best passive protection after TGEV challenge exposure of their pigs. Not only litter mortality (27%) but also morbidity was reduced, compared with those factors for the other challenge exposed litters, and the sows did not become ill. In these swine, the high degree of passive protection observed could not be associated with the presence of only IgA TGEV antibodies in the milk, but high IgM TGEV antibody titers also were detected in colostrum and milk. Results of this study suggest that PRCV-inoculated sows are able to partially protect their pigs from TGEV challenge exposure and, on the basis of preliminary data, the degree of protection may increase after multiple PRCV exposures or after secondary exposure to TGEV during pregnancy. Also, an IgA respiratory tract-mammary gland link may exist as evident by the low titer of IgA TGEV antibodies in the milk of PRCV-inoculated sows, but may not be as efficient in inducing lactogenic IgA immunity as is the gastrointestinal tract-mammary gland link.

Starling forces and hemodynamics in the digits of 5 horses were studied during early laminitis induced by oral administration of an aqueous extract of black walnut (Juglans nigra). The black walnut extract was prepared from heartwood shavings and was administered by nasogastric tube. Heart and respiratory rates, rectal temperature, central venous and arterial pressures, digital pulses, and signs of lameness were monitored. Blood samples were collected for determination of WBC count, hemoglobin concentration, and PCV and for endotoxin and tumor necrosis factor assays. Total WBC count and central venous pressure were monitored until they decreased by 30 or 20%, respectively. These decreases in WBC count and central venous pressure were observed 2 to 3 hours after dosing with black walnut extract. Respiratory and heart rates, body temperature, systolic and diastolic blood pressures, PCV, and hemoglobin concentration did not change significantly. Anesthesia was induced, heparin (500 IU/kg of body weight) was administered IV, and a pump-perfused extracorporeal digital preparation was established. Digital arterial and venous pressures were maintained at 100 and 30 mm of Hg, respectively. Blood flow, capillary pressure, lymph and plasma protein concentrations, and weight of the isolated digit during rapid increase in venous pressure were measured. Isogravimetric capillary filtration coefficient, vascular compliance, vascular and tissue oncotic pressures, tissue pressure, osmotic reflection coefficient, and precapillary and postcapillary resistances were calculated. Mean digital blood flow was 14 ml/min/100 g, capillary pressure was 52 mm of Hg, and vascular compliance was 0.06 ml/mm of Hg. The vascular and tissue oncotic pressures were 21.49 and 4.93 mm of Hg, respectively. The osmotic reflection coefficient was 0.71, and tissue pressure was 41 mm of Hg. The precapillary and postcapillary resistances were 7 and 2 mm of Hg/ml, respectively. Capillary permeability to proteins was not significantly different from that previously measured in healthy horses, suggesting that the increased capillary filtration coefficient reflected increased capillary hydrostatic pressure and perfusion of previously nonperfused capillaries. Neither endotoxin nor serum tumor necrosis factor activity was detected in any samples. The hemodynamic and Starling forces observed in this study were similar to those observed after laminitis was induced by administration of a carbohydrate gruel. Significant differences between the 2 models were detected for total vascular resistance, postcapillary resistance, and capillary filtration coefficient. It is likely that these differences were identified because the horses administered the black walnut extract were at an earlier stage in the disease process. The findings of this study suggest that the increase in capillary pressure causes transvascular fluid movement, resulting in increased tissue pressure and edema. We hypothesize that further increases in tissue pressure may collapse capillary beds and lead to tissue ischemia.

We investigated the ability of an antibody-specific, O antigen-based ELISA to document Salmonella typhimurium herd infections by screening of milk samples. Three cattle populations, 20 herds with no history of salmonellosis, 8 herds with history of S. typhimurium episodes within the previous 7 months, and 220 herds of unknown disease status, were tested. A herd was considered ELISA positive if at least 5% of the cows had OD values > 0.3. Among the 20 herds without history of salmonellosis, only 2 herds were ELISA positive, whereas all 8 herds with a known history of salmonellosis were ELISA positive (herd specificity, 0.9 and herd sensitivity, 1.0). A significant correlation (P < 0.001) was found between the OD values of serum and milk samples from cows in the herds with a history of salmonellosis. It was concluded that ELISA testing of individual milk samples can be used for surveillance of herds for S. typhimurium infections, but further modifications are needed to test bulk tank milk samples.

A series of experiments was conducted to document tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) activity in serum of swine after inoculation with Salmonella spp endotoxin and after oral or respiratory tract challenge exposure with live Salmonella spp. For experiment 1, a potentially lethal dose of S typhimurium endotoxin (25 microgram/kg of body weight) was administered IV, and serum TNF activity was measured. High TNF (approx 700 IU/ml) activity at 1 to 2 hours after administration of the inoculum was associated with death, whereas lower TNF (approx 30 IU/ml) activity was associated with a general prolonged state of shock. For experiment 2, pigs were administered a nonlethal dose (5 microgram/kg, IV) of either S typhimurium or S choleraesuis endotoxin. Difference in the ability to induce porcine serum TNF activity was not observed between strains. During experiment 3, pigs were inoculated with 104 colony-forming units of S typhimurium chi4232 either orally by gelatin capsule (GC) or by intranasal (IN) instillation. A late serum TNF response (17 IU/ml) was measured at 6 weeks after IN inoculation. A serum TNF response was not detected in GC-inoculated pigs. All tissues and feces were test-negative for S typhimurium prior to the 6-week TNF response. Serum TNF activity may be related to clearance of S typhimurium after respiratory tract exposure, but it is not important to or indicative of clearance of orally presented S typhimurium in swine. During experiment 4, pigs were inoculated with 106 colony-forming units of S typhimurium chi4232 similarly as for experiment 3. Challenge exposure with this medium-size dose of inoculum induced a prolonged peak serum TNF response (37 IU/ml) between 2 and 4 weeks after IN inoculation. Again, serum TNF activity was not detected in GC-inoculated pigs. Data suggest that clearance of a medium-size dose (106) of inoculum may be influenced by the prolonged higher serum TNF activity. For experiments 5 and 6, pigs were inoculated IN with 103, 106, 108, or 109 S choleraesuis chi3246. A measurable, yet statistically nonsignificant, serum TNF response was observed for all doses. Pigs inoculated by GC with 108 S choleraesuis chi3246 had similar results. High does (> 106) of live S choleraesuis were associated with clinical signs of endotoxic shock. Clearance of S choleraesuis, or lack thereof, did not correlate with serum TNF activity.

A matched case-control study design was used to assess the effects of long-term administration of a prolonged release formulation of bovine somatotropin (sometribove) on clinical lameness and limb lesions in dairy cows. Cows treated with sometribove for at least 2 lactations (cases) and nontreated dairy cows matched by herd, parity, age, and stage of lactation (controls) in 8 herds were evaluated for clinical lameness (as assessed by gait abnormality) and limb lesions by 2 observers, using a standardized scoring procedure at a single herd visit. Although a high proportion of the study cows were clinically lame (43%), an association was not detected between chronic administration of sometribove and prevalent lameness. Of 21 types of limb lesions identified, 2 were positively associated and 2 were negatively associated with long-term sometribove use. Superficial laceration of the tarsus (odds ratio [OR] = 2.1) and superficial swelling of the metatarsophalangeal joint (OR = 4.5) were positively associated with sometribove treatment, whereas femoral lesions (OR = 0.2) and superficial lacerations of the femur (OR = 0.14) were negatively associated with sometribove treatment.

Twenty-four, adult, female Beagles were arranged by body weight from greatest to least and allocated to 2 groups of 12 dogs, using random numbers. Dogs were housed collectively in 2 adjacent metal buildings, each divided into 4 rooms measuring 2.1 X3.7 m. Each room was paneled and carpeted and had an access door to the outside with a connecting run that measured 2.1 X 9.1 m. Each run had a surface consisting of 5 cm of pea gravel overlayng 5 cm of sand, and was partially covered by an awning that provided shade at its proximal end. For placement in room/run units, dogs in each of the treated and control groups were allotted to 4 subgroups of 3 dogs each. Each subgroup of dogs was placed in a separate room/run unit. Units containing treatment or control subgroups were alternated to avoid placing identically treated subgroups adjacent to each other. Dogs of subgroups A, C, E, and G were treated with lufenuron monthly at a minimal target dosage of 10 mg/kg of body weight; those of subgroups B, D, F, and H were treated with excipient tablets. Dogs were treated on study days 7, 37, 68, and 98. Each dog was infested with 100 newly emerged, unfed, insectary-reared adult Ctenocephalides felis on each of study days 0 and 2. Thereafter, infestations on all dogs were dependent on continued development of fleas either in the indoor or outdoor environment. Numbers of fleas on each of the treated and control dogs were determined, using a nondestructive counting technique on days 6, 14, 21, 28, 35, 56, 70, 84, 98, 112, and 119. On study day 21 and on each collection day thereafter, numbers of adult fleas recovered from treated dogs were significantly (P < 0.05) fewer than those recovered from control dogs. Proportion reduction of fleas on treated vs control dogs exceeded 90% by study day 35 and 95% by study day 56. Efficacies exceeded 95% on all remaining study days except days 98 (94.4% and 119 (90%). Results of this study indicate that control of flea populations can be achieved in treated dogs approximately 4 to 5 weeks after initial treatment with lufenuron, and that continued monthly treatments will maintain effective control of flea infestations. Adverse reactions or side effects to treatment with lufenuron were not observed in dogs after treatment at any time throughout the study.

Intraocular production of Toxoplasma gondii-specific antibody in cats has been estimated by comparing the ratio of T gondii-specific antibody in aqueous humor and serum with the ratio of total immunoglobulins in serum and aqueous humor (Goldmann-Witmer coefficient; aqueous antibody coefficient; C value). It has been proposed that in human beings, comparison of the ratio of T gondii-specific antibody in aqueous humor and serum with the ratio of antibodies against a nonocular pathogen in serum and aqueous humor is more accurate than methods using total immunoglobulin quantification. We developed an ELISA for detection of calicivirus-specific antibodies in the serum and aqueous humor of cats. By evaluating calicivirus-specific antibody concentrations in the aqueous humor of healthy and diseased cats, calicivirus was assessed as a nonintraocular pathogen. The ratio of T gondii-specific antibodies in the aqueous humor and serum and the ratio of calicivirus-specific antibodies in serum and aqueous humor were evaluated as a means of estimating intraocular T gondii-specific antibody production. A field strain of feline calicivirus was isolated, cultured, and purified. A calicivirus-specific IgG ELISA was developed for detection of feline calicivirus-specific IgG in serum and aqueous humor. Calicivirus-specific IgG was measured in the serum and aqueous humor from 3 groups of control cats. Results suggested that calicivirus is a nonintraocular pathogen in cats and that calicivirus IgG detected in aqueous humor is attributable to leakage across a damaged blood-ocular barrier. Intraocular production of T gondii-specific antibodies was estimated, using 2 formulas. The C value was calculated by multiplying the ratio of T gondii-specific IgM or IgG in aqueous humor and serum by the ratio of total immunoglobulins (using the corresponding IgM or IgG class) in serum and aqueous humor. The Ctc value (Toxoplasma-calicivirus Goldmann-Witmer coefficient) was calculated by multiplying the ratio of T gondii-specific IgM or IgG in aqueous humor and serum by the ratio of calicivirus-specific IgG in serum and aqueous humor. Serum and aqueous humor samples were obtained from 41 client-owned cats with uveitis, and T gondii-specific C values and Ctc values were calculated. Toxoplasma gondii-specific IgM or IgG C values of 10 or greater or T gondii-specific IgM or IgG Ctc values of 1 or greater were considered to be suggestive of intraocular T gondii-specific antibody production. Of the 41 cats, 20 (48.7%) had evidence of intraocular production of T gondii-specific antibody on the basis of either an IgM or IgG C value of 10 or greater. A Ctc value could not be calculated in 3 cats because calicivirus-specific IgG was not present in aqueous humor. Of the 38 cats for which Ctc values could be calculated, 25 (65.8%) had evidence of intraocular production of T gondii-specific antibody on the basis of either an IgM or IgG Ctc value of 1 or greater. The C values and Ctc values were in agreement for 75.9% of IgM containing samples and 75% of IgG containing samples. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive value of a positive test result, and predictive value of a negative test result for an IgM or IgG C value, when compared with the corresponding IgM or IgG Ctc value were determined. The results indicate that use of the C value for estimation of intraocular T gondii-specific antibody production will result in 28.6 (IgM) to 50% IgG) false-negative results and 12.5% (IgM and IgG) false-positive results, when compared with the Ctc value.

Toxoplasma gondii-specific IgA, IgM, and IgG were measured by ELISA in the serum and aqueous humor of 29 client-owned cats with indigenous aviates and 7 specific-pathogen-free cats tested sequentially for 20 weeks after inoculation with T. gondii. Local antibody production in aqueous humor was estimated by multiplying the aqueous humor-to-serum T gondii-specific antibody ratio by the serum-to-aqueous humor total IgG (C value) or IgG (C value) ratio. Evidence for local production of antibody in aqueous humor was defined as C value greater than 8 or CTC value greater than 1. Toxoplasma gondii-specific IgM CTC values, IgG CTC values, or IgA CTC values greater than 1 were detected in the aqueous humor of 18 of 29 (62.1%) client-owned cats with endogenous uveitis; 2 cats had IgA CTC values greater than 1 without detectable IgM or IgG in aqueous humor. Toxoplasma gondii-specific IgM was not detected in the aqueous humor of experimentally inoculated cats before or after inoculation. Immunoglobulin G C values greater than 8 were detected in all 7 experimentally inoculated cats and ranged from 10.4 to 145.5. Immunoglobulin G C values greater than 8 were first detected 4 to 8 weeks after T gondii inoculation and were undetectable by week 16 after inoculation. Immunoglobulin A C values greater than 8 were detected in 4 of 7 cats and ranged from 12.7 to 264.3. Immunoglobulin A C values greater than 8 were first detected 4 to 8 weeks after inoculation, and were detected in 2 cats during week 20 after inoculation. It was concluded that some cats infected with T gondii develop detectable concentrations of T gondii-specific IgA in aqueous humor.

Neutrophils are present in milk of cows as a means of suppressing invading pathogens during mastitis. However, the manner by which neutrophils traverse the secretory epithelia is still not clear: do they diapedese between epithelial cells or do they kill epithelial cells to gain entry into milk? We investigated the process of bovine neutrophil diapedesis across bovine mammary gland epithelium in vitro. The bovine mammary epithelial cell line MAC-T, grown on collagen-coated filters, formed a confluent monolayer with characteristic tight junctions, basal-apical polarity, and functional barriers to the dye trypan blue. Neutrophils added on the apical surface of the monolayer were stimulated to diapedese across the epithelium by the addition of Staphylococcus aureus (10(7) colony-forming units/ml) to the basal compartment. Light and transmission electron microscopy revealed the series of events for neutrophil transmigration: accumulation of neutrophils on the surface of epithelial monolayer; projection of pseudopods into intercellular junctions and movement of neutrophils between adjacent epithelial cells; and reapproximation of the lateral epithelial cell membranes and reformation of the apical tight junctions after neutrophils crossed the epithelium. Morphologically, epithelial cell damage caused by neutrophil diapedesis was not evident. This in vitro model provides a two-dimensional epithelial sheet by which neutrophil diapedesis can be qualitatively studied under defined conditions. Results of the study suggest a major mode by which bovine neutrophils diapedese across the alveolar epithelia into milk during mastitis.

Methods available for measurement of plasma lipoprotein-cholesterol concentrations and activities of lipoprotein lipase, hepatic lipase, lecithin:cholesterol acyl transferase (LCAT), and cholesteryl ester transfer protein were adapted for use in cats. A combined ultracentrifugation/precipitation procedure was used to isolate very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), then to separate low-density lipoproteins (LDL) from high-density lipoproteins (HDL). The reagent used, 92 mM heparin-manganese chloride, provided complete precipitation of LDL with only trace and insignificant contamination by HDL. Efforts to selectively measure lipoprotein lipase activity in plasma, collected after IV injection of heparin, by inhibiting hepatic lipase with sodium dodecyl sulfate were unsuccessful, and the activity of this enzyme was calculated as the difference between total and hepatic lipase activities. The latter was measured in the presence of high salt concentration to inhibit lipoprotein lipase. Cholesterol esterifying activity was identified in feline plasma and was typical of LCAT, in that it was dependent on apolipoprotein A-I as a cofactor. The intra-assay and interassay coefficients of variation for measurement of lipoprotein lipase, hepatic lipase, and LCAT activities were 18.4, 4.6, and 7.2%, and 20.4, 10.7, and 5.3%, respectively. Appreciable cholesteryl ester transfer protein activity was not detected in either undiluted or diluted plasma. These methods were subsequently used to investigate the effects of pregnancy and lactation on lipoprotein metabolism in a group of 10 queens. Plasma concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides were unaltered during pregnancy, but the concentrations of VLDL-cholesterol increased and those of HDL-cholesterol decreased. During lactation, the concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides decreased owing to reductions in VLDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations and continued suppression of HDL-cholesterol. These changes were associated with alterations in the activities of lipoprotein lipase, which increased after parturition, and hepatic lipase, which increased during pregnancy and lactation, that may help explain their metabolic origins. The activity of LCAT remained unchanged.