The only way to diagnose hepatic fibrosis in dogs is by histological assessment of a liver biopsy specimen. As this technique is invasive and susceptible to sampling variation, serum biomarkers are used to detect hepatic fibrosis in humans. The objective of this study was to assess the utility of hyaluronic acid (HA), procollagen type III N-terminal peptide (PIIINP), and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) as serum markers of canine hepatic fibrosis. Serum samples were collected from 47 dogs with histologically confirmed hepatobiliary disease and 24 healthy dogs in order to measure concentrations of HA, PIIINP, and TIMP-1. Hepatic fibrosis was staged using a 5-point scoring scheme. There was no correlation between serum concentrations of HA or PIIINP and the severity of hepatic fibrosis. There was a negative correlation between serum concentration of TIMP-1 and the severity of hepatic fibrosis (r s = −0.33; P = 0.036). It was not possible to use serum concentrations of HA, PIIINP, or TIMP-1 to discriminate between dogs with absent-to-moderate hepatic fibrosis and those with marked-to-very-marked fibrosis. The results of this study do not support the utility of measuring serum concentrations of HA, PIIINP, or TIMP-1 for diagnosing canine hepatic fibrosis. Further studies are needed to support this finding.

OBJECTIVE To determine degrees of production of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and -2 and other mediators of inflammation in noninflamed and inflamed skin and muscle tissues in ball pythons (Python regius). ANIMALS 6 healthy adult male ball pythons. PROCEDURES Biopsy specimens of noninflamed skin and muscle tissue were collected from anesthetized snakes on day 0. A 2-cm skin and muscle incision was then made 5 cm distal to the biopsy sites with a CO2 laser to induce inflammation. On day 7, biopsy specimens of skin and muscle tissues were collected from the incision sites. Inflamed and noninflamed tissue specimens were evaluated for production of COX-1, COX-2, phosphorylated protein kinase B (AKT), total AKT, nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, phosphorylated extracellular receptor kinases (ERKs) 1 and 2, and total ERK proteins by western blot analysis. Histologic evaluation was performed on H&E-stained tissue sections. RESULTS All biopsy specimens of inflamed skin and muscle tissues had higher histologic inflammation scores than did specimens of noninflamed tissue. Inflamed skin specimens had significantly greater production of COX-1 and phosphorylated ERK than did noninflamed skin specimens. Inflamed muscle specimens had significantly greater production of phosphorylated ERK and phosphorylated AKT, significantly lower production of COX-1, and no difference in production of COX-2, compared with production in noninflamed muscle specimens. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Production of COX-1, but not COX-2, was significantly greater in inflamed versus noninflamed skin specimens from ball pythons. Additional research into the reptilian COX signaling pathway is warranted.

OBJECTIVE To compare expression, activity, and fecal concentration of intestinal alkaline phosphatase (IAP) between healthy dogs and dogs with chronic enteropathy (CE). ANIMALS 9 healthy university-owned Beagles and 109 healthy client-owned dogs (controls) and 28 dogs with CE (cases). PROCEDURES Cases were defined as dogs with persistent (> 3 weeks) gastrointestinal signs that failed to respond to antimicrobials and anti-inflammatory doses of prednisolone or dietary trials, did not have mechanical gastrointestinal abnormalities as determined by abdominal radiography and ultrasonography, and had a diagnosis of lymphoplasmacytic enteritis or eosinophilic gastroenteritis on histologic examination of biopsy specimens. Duodenal and colonic mucosa biopsy specimens were obtained from the 9 university-owned Beagles and all cases for histologic examination and determination of IAP expression (by real-time quantitative PCR assay) and activity (by enzyme histochemical analysis). Fecal samples were obtained from all dogs for determination of fecal IAP concentration by a quantitative enzyme reaction assay. RESULTS For dogs evaluated, IAP expression and activity were localized at the luminal side of epithelial cells in the mucosa and intestinal crypts, although both were greater in the duodenum than in the colon. Active IAP was detected in the feces of all dogs. Intestinal alkaline phosphatase expression and activity were lower for cases than for controls, and fecal IAP concentration for dogs with moderate and severe CE was lower than that for dogs with mild CE. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that dogs with CE had impaired IAP expression and activity. Additional research is necessary to elucidate the role of IAP in the pathogenesis of CE.

The objective of this study was to develop a technique for carrying out repeated biopsies of the mammary gland of lactating dairy cows that provides enough material to monitor enzyme activities and gene expression in mammary secretory tissue. A total of 16 Holstein cows were subjected to 4 mammary biopsies each at 3-week intervals for a total of 64 biopsies. A 0.75-cm incision was made through the skin and subcutaneous tissue of the mammary gland and a trocar and cannula were inserted using a circular motion. The trocar was withdrawn and a syringe was plugged into the base of the cannula to create a vacuum for sampling mammary tissue. To reduce bleeding, hand pressure was put on the surgery site after biopsy and skin closure and ice was applied for at least 2 h after the biopsy using a cow bra. The entire procedure took an average of 25 min. Two attempts were usually enough to obtain 800 mg of tissue. Visual examination of milk samples 10 d after the biopsy indicated no trace of blood, except in samples from 2 cows. All wounds healed without infection and subcutaneous hematomas resorbed within 7 d. There was no incidence of mastitis throughout the lactation. This technique provides a new tool for biopsy of the mammary gland repeated at short intervals with the main effect being a decrease in milk production. Although secondary complications leading to illness or death are always a risk with any procedure, this biopsy technique was carried out without complications to the health of animals and with no incidence of mastitis during the lactation.

OBJECTIVE To compare antibacterial effects among 3 types of foam used with negative-pressure wound therapy (NPWT) in an ex vivo equine perfused wound model. SAMPLES Abdominal musculocutaneous flaps from 6 equine cadavers. PROCEDURES Each musculocutaneous flap was continuously perfused with saline (0.9% NaCl) solution. Four 5-cm circular wounds were created in each flap and contaminated with 106 CFUs of both Pseudomonas aeruginosa and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). After a 1-hour incubation period, 1 of 4 treatments (NPWT with silver-impregnated polyurethane foam [NPWT-AgPU], polyurethane foam [NPWT-PU], or polyvinyl alcohol foam [NPWT-PVA] or a nonadherent dressing containing polyhexamethylene biguanide without NPWT [control]) was randomly applied to each wound. An 8-mm punch biopsy specimen was obtained from each wound immediately before and at 6, 12, 18, and 24 hours after treatment application to determine the bacterial load for both P aeruginosa and MRSA. RESULTS The bacterial load of P aeruginosa for the NPWT-PVA treatment was significantly lower than that for the other 3 treatments at each sampling time after application, whereas the bacterial load for the NPWT-AgPU treatment was significantly lower than that for the NPWT-PU and control treatments at 12 hours after application. The bacterial load of MRSA for the NPWT-PVA treatment was significantly lower than that for the other 3 treatments at each sampling time after application. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that wounds treated with NPWT-PVA had the greatest decrease in bacterial load; however, the effect of that treatment on wound healing needs to be assessed in vivo.

OBJECTIVE To compare mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate (OCR) of fibroblasts from Doberman Pinschers with and without dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and mutation of the gene for pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isozyme 4 (PDK4) and to evaluate in vitro whether treatment with adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector (ie, gene therapy) would alter metabolic efficiency. ANIMALS 10 Doberman Pinschers screened for DCM and PDK4 mutation. PROCEDURES Fibroblasts were harvested from skin biopsy specimens obtained from Doberman Pinschers, and dogs were classified as without DCM or PDK4 mutation (n = 3) or with occult DCM and heterozygous (4) or homozygous (3) for PDK4 mutation. Fibroblasts were or were not treated with tyrosine mutant AAV type 2 vector containing PDK4 at multiplicities of infection of 1,000. Mitochondrial OCR was measured to evaluate mitochondrial metabolism. The OCR was compared among dog groups and between untreated and treated fibroblasts within groups. RESULTS Mean ± SD basal OCR of fibroblasts from heterozygous (74 ± 8 pmol of O2/min) and homozygous (58 ± 12 pmol of O2/min) dogs was significantly lower than that for dogs without PDK4 mutation (115 ± 9 pmol of O2/min). After AAV transduction, OCR did not increase significantly in any group (mutation-free group, 121 ± 26 pmol of O2/min; heterozygous group, 88 ± 6 pmol of O2/min; homozygous group, 59 ± 3 pmol of O2/min). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Mitochondrial function was altered in skin fibroblasts of Doberman Pinschers with DCM and PDK4 mutation. Change in mitochondrial function after in vitro gene therapy at the multiplicities of infection used in this study was not significant.

OBJECTIVE To describe the perfusion and diffusion characteristics of the liver in healthy dogs as determined by morphological, perfusion-weighted, and diffusion-weighted MRI. ANIMALS 11 healthy adult Beagles. PROCEDURES Each dog was anesthetized and underwent morphological, perfusion-weighted, and diffusion-weighted MRI of the cranial aspect of the abdomen. On the MRI images, a region of interest (ROI) was established for each of 6 structures (aorta, caudal vena cava, portal vein, hepatic parenchyma, splenic parenchyma, and skeletal [epaxial] muscle). The signal intensity was determined, and a time-intensity curve was generated for each ROI. The apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) was calculated for the hepatic and splenic parenchyma in diffusion-weighted MRI images, and the normalized ADC for the liver was calculated as the ratio of the ADC for the hepatic parenchyma to the ADC for the splenic parenchyma. Dogs also underwent abdominal ultrasonography, and ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspirate samples and biopsy specimens were obtained from the liver for cytologic and histologic examination. RESULTS Cytologic and histologic results suggested that the liver was clinically normal in all dogs. Perfusion-weighted MRI parameters varied among the 6 ROIs. The mean ± SD ADC of the hepatic parenchyma was 0.84 × 10(−3) mm2/s ± 0.17 × 10(−3) mm2/s, and the mean normalized ADC for the liver was 1.8 ± 0.4. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results provided preliminary baseline information about the diffusion and perfusion characteristics of the liver in healthy dogs. Additional studies on dogs of various breeds with and without hepatopathies are necessary to validate and refine these findings.

Local (skeletal muscle and adipose) and systemic inflammation are implicated in the development of obesity-associated insulin resistance in humans. In horses, obesity is neither strongly nor consistently associated with systemic inflammation. The role of skeletal muscle inflammation in the development of insulin dysregulation (insulin resistance or hyperinsulinemia) remains to be determined. We hypothesized that skeletal muscle inflammation is related to obesity-associated hyperinsulinemia in horses. Thirty-five light-breed horses with body condition scores (BCSs) of 3/9 to 9/9 were studied, including 7 obese, normoinsulinemic (BCS ≥ 7, resting serum insulin < 30 μIU/mL) and 6 obese, hyperinsulinemic (resting serum insulin ≥ 30 μIU/mL) horses. Inflammatory biomarkers were evaluated in skeletal muscle biopsies and plasma. Relationships between markers of inflammation and BCS were evaluated. To assess the role of inflammation in obesity-associated hyperinsulinemia, markers of inflammation were compared among lean or ideal, normoinsulinemic (L-NI); obese, normoinsulinemic (O-NI); and obese, hyperinsulinemic (O-HI) horses. Skeletal muscle and plasma tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) concentrations were negatively correlated with BCS. When comparing inflammatory markers among groups, skeletal muscle TNFα was lower in the O-HI group than in the O-NI or L-NI groups. In horses, neither skeletal muscle nor systemic inflammation appears to be positively related to obesity or obesity-associated hyperinsulinemia.