Introduction: Reindeer are adapted to long distance migration. This species can cope with variations in substrate, especially in ice and snow environment. However, few detailed studies about reindeer hoof are available. Thus this article describes the results of studies on macro- and micro-structures of reindeer hoof.Material and Methods: The gross anatomy of the reindeer hooves was examined. Stereo microscope (SM) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) were used to observe four key selected positions of reindeer hooves. Moreover, element contents of the three selected positions of reindeer hooves were analysed using the SEM equipped with energy dispersive spectroscope.Results: Hoof bone structures were similar to other artiodactyl animals. In the microscopic analysis, the surfaces of the ungula sphere and ungula sole presented irregular laminated structure. Ungula edge surfaces were smooth and ungula cusp surfaces had unique features. Aside from C, O, and N, reindeer hooves contained such elements as S, Si, Fe, Al, and Ca. The content of the elements in different parts varied. Ti was the particular element in the ungula sole, and ungula edge lacked Mg and S which other parts contained.Conclusion: The macro- and micro-structures of the reindeer hooves showed high performance of skid and abrasion resistance. It is most probably essential to the long distance migration for the animals.

OBJECTIVE To investigate the use of canine whole blood (WB) for measurement of ammonia concentration by use of a point-of-care ammonia meter and to compare results of measuring ammonia concentrations in WB, EDTA-anticoagulated WB, and plasma. ANIMALS 40 client-owned dogs. PROCEDURES A blood sample (2 mL) was obtained from each dog. One drop of WB was immediately applied to a test strip for evaluation with an ammonia meter. The remainder of the blood sample was placed in an EDTA-containing tube, and 1 drop of EDTA-anticoagulated WB was applied to a test strip. The remaining EDTA-anticoagulated WB sample was centrifuged, and the plasma was harvested and placed on ice. One drop of plasma was applied to a test strip; the remainder of the plasma sample was transported on ice and used for ammonia measurement with a reference laboratory instrument. All samples were tested within 1 hour after sample collection. Results were evaluated to detect significant differences in ammonia concentration. RESULTS Ammonia concentrations did not differ significantly between WB and EDTA-anticoagulated WB and between plasma samples measured with the meter and reference laboratory instrument. However, median ammonia concentration was significantly higher in plasma than in WB or EDTA-anti-coagulated WB. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Anticoagulant-free WB was a valid sample for measurement by use of the ammonia meter. Plasma samples had higher ammonia concentrations than did WB samples. Results for each sample type should be interpreted by use of specimen- and method-specific reference intervals.

Objective-To determine the effects of protease inhibitors and holding times and temperatures before processing on the stability of substance P in bovine blood samples. Samples-Blood samples obtained from a healthy 6-month-old calf. Procedures-Blood samples were dispensed into tubes containing exogenous substance P and 1 of 6 degradative enzyme inhibitor treatments: heparin, EDTA, EDTA with 1 of 2 concentrations of aprotinin, or EDTA with 1 of 2 concentrations of a commercially available protease inhibitor cocktail. Plasma was harvested immediately following collection or after 1, 3, 6, 12, or 24 hours of holding at ambient (20.3° to 25.4°C) or ice bath temperatures. Total substance P immunoreactivity was determined with an ELISA; concentrations of the substance P parent molecule, a metabolite composed of the 9 terminal amino acids, and a metabolite composed of the 5 terminal amino acids were determined with liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Results-Regarding blood samples processed immediately, no significant differences in substance P concentrations or immunoreactivity were detected among enzyme inhibitor treatments. In blood samples processed at 1 hour of holding, substance P parent molecule concentration was significantly lower for ambient temperature versus ice bath temperature holding conditions; aprotinin was the most effective inhibitor of substance P degradation at the ice bath temperature. The ELISA substance P immunoreactivity was typically lower for blood samples with heparin versus samples with other inhibitors processed at 1 hour of holding in either temperature condition. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-Results suggested that blood samples should be chilled and plasma harvested within 1 hour after collection to prevent substance P degradation.

The objective of this study was to develop a technique for carrying out repeated biopsies of the mammary gland of lactating dairy cows that provides enough material to monitor enzyme activities and gene expression in mammary secretory tissue. A total of 16 Holstein cows were subjected to 4 mammary biopsies each at 3-week intervals for a total of 64 biopsies. A 0.75-cm incision was made through the skin and subcutaneous tissue of the mammary gland and a trocar and cannula were inserted using a circular motion. The trocar was withdrawn and a syringe was plugged into the base of the cannula to create a vacuum for sampling mammary tissue. To reduce bleeding, hand pressure was put on the surgery site after biopsy and skin closure and ice was applied for at least 2 h after the biopsy using a cow bra. The entire procedure took an average of 25 min. Two attempts were usually enough to obtain 800 mg of tissue. Visual examination of milk samples 10 d after the biopsy indicated no trace of blood, except in samples from 2 cows. All wounds healed without infection and subcutaneous hematomas resorbed within 7 d. There was no incidence of mastitis throughout the lactation. This technique provides a new tool for biopsy of the mammary gland repeated at short intervals with the main effect being a decrease in milk production. Although secondary complications leading to illness or death are always a risk with any procedure, this biopsy technique was carried out without complications to the health of animals and with no incidence of mastitis during the lactation.

OBJECTIVE To assess the effect of cold storage (CS) on immediate posttransplantation function of renal autografts in cats. ANIMALS 15 healthy 1-year-old cats. PROCEDURES Cats were assigned to 2 groups and underwent autotransplantation of the left kidney followed by nephrectomy of the right kidney. The left kidney was autotransplanted either immediately (IT group; n = 6) or after being flushed with a cold sucrose phosphate solution and stored on ice while the implant site was prepared (CS group; 9). Serum creatinine and BUN concentrations were monitored daily and autografts were ultrasonographically examined intermittently for 14 days after surgery. RESULTS Mean duration of CS was 24 minutes for the CS group. Posttransplantation serum creatinine and BUN concentrations for the CS group had lower peak values, returned to the respective reference ranges quicker, and were generally significantly lower than those for the IT group. Mean posttransplantation autograft size for the CS group was smaller than that for the IT group. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that immediate posttransplantation function of renal autografts following a short period of CS was better than that of renal autografts that did not undergo CS, which suggested CS protected grafts from ischemic injury and may decrease perioperative complications, speed recovery, and improve the long-term outcome for cats with renal transplants. IMPACT FOR HUMAN MEDICINE Cats metabolize immunosuppressive drugs in a manner similar to humans; therefore, renal transplantation in cats may serve as a desirable model for investigating the effects of renal transplantation in human patients.

Objective: To determine the pharmacokinetics of dexmedetomidine administered as a short-duration IV infusion in isoflurane-anesthetized cats. Animals: 6 healthy adult domestic female cats. Procedures: Dexmedetomidine hydrochloride was injected IV (10 μg/kg over 5 minutes [rate, 2 μg/kg/min]) in isoflurane-anesthetized cats. Blood samples were obtained immediately prior to and at 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 240, and 480 minutes following the start of the IV infusion. Collected blood samples were transferred to tubes containing EDTA, immediately placed on ice, and then centrifuged at 3,901 × g for 10 minutes at 4°C. The plasma was harvested and stored at −20°C until analyzed. Plasma dexmedetomidine concentrations were determined by means of liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. Dexmedetomidine plasma concentration-time data were fitted to compartmental models. Results: A 2-compartment model with input in and elimination from the central compartment best described the disposition of dexmedetomidine administered via short-duration IV infusion in isoflurane-anesthetized cats. Weighted mean ± SEM apparent volume of distribution of the central compartment and apparent volume of distribution at steady-state were 402 ± 47 mL/kg and 1,701 ± 200 mL/kg, respectively; clearance and terminal half-life (harmonic mean ± jackknife pseudo-SD) were 6.3 ± 2.8 mL/min/kg and 198 ± 75 minutes, respectively. The area under the plasma concentration curve and maximal plasma concentration were 1,061 ± 292 min•ng/mL and 17.6 ± 1.8 ng/mL, respectively. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Disposition of dexmedetomidine administered via short-duration IV infusion in isoflurane-anesthetized cats was characterized by a moderate clearance and a long terminal half-life.

Objective: To compare effects of 3 methods of topically applied cold treatment (cryotherapy) on digital laminar and venous temperatures in horses. Animals: 9 healthy adult Thoroughbreds. Procedures: Thermocouples were placed in palmar digital veins and digital laminae of both forelimbs of horses. Three methods of cryotherapy were applied to the distal aspects of the limbs: wader boot (63-cm-tall vinyl boot filled with ice and water [ice slurry]), ice bag (5-L fluid bag filled with ice slurry), and a gel pack boot (boot containing frozen gel packs). Gel packs and ice slurries were replenished every hour during cryotherapy. The forelimb that received the first treatment was randomly assigned; thereafter, control and treated forelimbs were alternated for each treatment. For each treatment, temperatures were recorded every minute during 15-minute pretreatment, 2-hour treatment, and ≥ 30 minute rewarming periods. Once temperatures had returned to within 3°C below pretreatment values, the experiment was repeated in a similar manner for other cryotherapy methods. Results: Digital venous temperatures were similar to laminar temperatures during each treatment. Ice bag and wader boot treatments caused similar cooling of digits. Gel boot treatment did not cause substantial cooling of digits. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Ice bag treatment caused laminar and digital venous cooling equivalent to that of wader boot treatment. Cryotherapy by use of 5-L fluid bags with an ice slurry may be a readily available, practical, and efficient method for prevention of laminitis in horses. Digital laminar and venous temperatures were similar in forelimbs of horses before and during cryotherapy.

Objective: To determine effects of syringe type and storage conditions on blood gas and acid-base values for equine blood samples. Sample: Blood samples obtained from 8 healthy horses. Procedures: Heparinized jugular venous blood was equilibrated via a tonometer at 37°C with 12% O2 and 5% CO2. Aliquots (3 mL) of tonometer-equilibrated blood were collected in random order by use of a glass syringe (GS), general-purpose polypropylene syringe (GPPS), or polypropylene syringe designed for blood gas analysis (PSBGA) and stored in ice water (0°C) or at room temperature (22°C) for 0, 5, 15, 30, 60, or 120 minutes. Blood pH was measured, and blood gas analysis was performed; data were analyzed by use of multivariable regression analysis. Results: Blood Po2 remained constant for the reference method (GS stored at 0°C) but decreased linearly at a rate of 7.3 mm Hg/h when stored in a GS at 22°C. In contrast, Po2 increased when blood was stored at 0°C in a GPPS and PSBGA or at 22°C in a GPPS; however, Po2 did not change when blood was stored at 22°C in a PSBGA. Calculated values for plasma concentration of HCO3 and total CO2 concentration remained constant in the 3 syringe types when blood was stored at 22°C for 2 hours but increased when blood was stored in a GS or GPPS at 0°C. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Blood samples for blood gas and acid-base analysis should be collected into a GS and stored at 0°C or collected into a PSBGA and stored at room temperature.