Anesthesia was induced in 8 healthy llamas by administration of guaifenesin and ketamine, and was maintained with halothane in oxygen. On 2 separate experimental days, atracurium was given to induce 95 to 99% reduction of evoked hind limb digital extensor tension (twitch). For the first part of the study, atracurium was given iv as repeat boluses, with muscle twitch strength being allowed to return without intervention to 75% of baseline after each bolus before the subsequent bolus was given. A total of 5 bolus doses of atracurium was given. For the first bolus, 0.15 mg/kg of body weight iv, and for subsequent boluses, 0.08 mg/kg, induced desired relaxation. Onset of relaxation was slightly more rapid for repeat, compared with initial, bolus. Duration of relaxation and recovery time were similar to initial and repeat doses. Maximal twitch reduction was observed in 4 +/- 0.2 minutes (mean +/- SEM). Duration from maximal twitch reduction to 10% recovery was 6.3 +/- 0.4 minutes. Twitch recovery from 10 to 50% of baseline took 11.6 +/- 0.6 minutes. Twitch recovery from 10 to 75% recovery took 19.5 +/- 1.1 minutes. Recovery from 10% twitch to 50% fade took 12.8 +/- 0.5 minutes. Fade at 50% recovery of twitch was 39 +/- 0.02%. Significant (P < 0.05) animal-to-animal variation was observed in twitch recovery times. For the second part of the study, atracurium was initially given IV as a 0.15-mg/kg bolus, followed by infusion for 1 to 2 hours. Infusion rate required some early adjustment to maintain desired relaxation, but the rate that prevailed was 1.07 +/- 0.07 ml/kg/h (0.4 mg of atracurium/ml of saline solution). Recovery of muscle twitch was similar to that previously mentioned for repeat bolus administration, At the end of the study, edrophonium (0.5 mg/kg) with atropine (0.01 mg/kg, IV) was effective in antagonizing residual neuromuscular blockade by atracurium. All llamas recovered without injury from anesthesia, although 1 llama had a rough recovery. It was concluded that atracurium can provide neuromuscular blockade by either repeat bolus administration or continuous infusion in llamas.

Thirty-seven local isolates of Actinobacillus suis-like organisms from diseased and clinically normal horses and 1 Ilama were compared with reference strains of A suis, A lignieresii, A equuli, A capsulatus, A hominis, A (Pasteurella) ureae, and equine A suis-like organisms (ASLO) previously described in literature. Comparison was by cultural characteristics, carbohydrate fermentation, enzyme profiles, and whole-cell protein polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Carbohydrate fermentation, determined by API-CH gallery, divided 36 equine ASLO isolates into 6 API-CH biotypes. The Ilama isolate was an additional distinct biotype. The biochemical comparisons between A suis and ASLO did not reveal remarkable and consistent differences. Enzyme analysis revealed 5 API-ZYM biotypes, one of which included the same strains as one of the API-CH biotypes and consisted in both instances of 4 esculin-negative ASLO cultures and the reference strain of A lignieresii. We conclude that the 4 strains were hemolytic variants of A lignieresii. Protein electrophoresis disclosed 15 banding patterns, 10 of which represented equine ASLO strains. The reference strains of A suis shared the pattern predominant among equine ASLO. Four of the remaining reference strains of Actinobacillus species each had a unique profile, whereas the type strain of A capsulatus and the Ilama isolate had similar profiles. The groupings of cultures resulting from the different testing methods had little relation to each other and to the anatomic source of the strains except the strains comprising API-CH biotype III, which originated in the equine respiratory tract, and the A lignieressi cluster.

The placenta of llamas is epitheliochorial, with patchy areas of dense folded papillation serving as the placentome. The amnion of the full-term placenta is closely adhered to either the allantois or the chorion and remains with these structures at the time of parturition. Llamas and alpacas, like dromedaries, have an extra fetal membrane that is derived from the epidermis of the fetus. In association with the watery amniotic fluid of llamas, the epidermal membrane is slippery, facilitating delivery of the fetus.

OBJECTIVE To determine and compare mean standing extension and maximum flexion angles of various joints in healthy adult alpacas and llamas, and determine the reliability of goniometric data within and between 2 observers for each joint of interest. SAMPLE 6 healthy adult llamas and 6 healthy adult alpacas. PROCEDURES The shoulder joint, elbow joint, carpal, and metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints of the forelimbs and the hip joint, stifle joint, tarsal, and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints of the hind limbs were investigated. Each articulation was measured with a universal goniometer by 2 observers, who each obtained 2 measurements when each joint was maintained in standing extension and in maximal passive flexion. Two sample (unpaired) t tests were performed for comparisons of mean standing extension and maximum passive flexion angles between alpacas and llamas. Intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated for each articulation to assess interobserver and intra-observer reliability of measurements. RESULTS Llamas had larger mean standing extension angles than alpacas for the tarsal and elbow joint, but there were no significant differences between species for all other joints. For all joints, flexion measurements did not differ significantly between the 2 species. For most joints, the reliability of goniometric data between observers was good to excellent (intraclass correlation coefficients, 0.6 to 0.95) CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Except for the elbow joint and tarsus in extension, the angle of limb articulations during flexion and extension can be considered similar for alpacas and llamas. These measurements have relevance for veterinary surgeons when assessing joint mobility and conformation and determining appropriate angles for arthrodesis.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate 2 processing methods (commercial kit vs conical tube centrifugation) for preparing platelet rich plasma (PRP) for use in llamas and alpacas. SAMPLES Blood samples (30 mL each) aseptically collected from 6 healthy llamas and 6 healthy alpacas. PROCEDURES PRP was prepared from blood samples by use of a commercial kit and by double-step conical tube centrifugation. A CBC was performed for blood and PRP samples. Platelets in PRP samples were activated by means of a freeze-thaw method with or without 23mM CaCl2, and concentrations of platelet-derived growth factor-BB and transforming growth factor-β1 were measured. Values were compared between processing methods and camelid species. RESULTS Blood CBC values for llamas and alpacas were similar. The commercial kit yielded a significantly greater degree of platelet enrichment (mean increase, 8.5 fold vs 2.8 fold) and WBC enrichment (mean increase, 3.7 fold vs 1.9 fold) than did conical tube centrifugation. Llamas had a significantly greater degree of platelet enrichment than alpacas by either processing method. No difference in WBC enrichment was identified between species. Concentrations of both growth factors were significantly greater in PRP samples obtained by use of the commercial kit versus those obtained by conical tube centrifugation. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE For blood samples from camelids, the commercial kit yielded a PRP product with a higher platelet and WBC concentration than achieved by conical tube centrifugation. Optimal PRP platelet and WBC concentrations for various applications need to be determined for llamas and alpacas.

Objective: To characterize serum trace mineral, sex steroid hormone, and vitamin D concentrations and identify factors associated with metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal hyperextension in llamas and alpacas. Samples: Serum samples from 79 llamas and 15 alpacas and owner survey data for 573 llamas and 399 alpacas. Procedures: Serum samples were stored at −20°C until analysis and were evaluated for trace mineral, vitamin D, estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone concentrations. Information regarding age of onset, number of affected animals in herd, feed and supplements given, type of housing, and management practices was obtained in an owner survey. Results: Higher serum zinc and iron concentrations were associated with metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal hyperextension in camelids, compared with controls. In summer and fall months, vitamin D concentrations were significantly higher in affected camelids than controls. Overall prevalence was 13.3% in llamas, compared with 0.7% in alpacas. No management factors were found to be predictive of this condition. No other factors examined were associated with metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal hyperextension. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Despite similar supplementation practices and environmental conditions between affected and unaffected animals, an association of high serum zinc, iron, and vitamin D concentrations in affected camelids, compared with controls, may indicate differences of intake or absorption of dietary supplements.

Swab specimens for fungal isolation were collected from the healthy conjunctival sacs of 3 species of captive camelids (Lama glama, L guanicoe, L pacos) and llama-guanaco hybrids. Fungi were collected from over half the animals in winter (53%) and summer (56%). Fungal species of 10 genera were isolated. In both seasons, Aspergillus was the most commonly isolated genus; at least 9 species of Aspergillus were found. The fungal organisms isolated were similar to those found in healthy eyes of other domestic animals and may represent a random seeding from the environment where they are ubiquitous.

The anatomy of the nasolacrimal duct of llamas was examined grossly and radiographically in 2 llamas. Dacryocystorhinography was performed on cadaver heads, using a radiographic aqueous contrast agent. Anatomic casts of the nasolacrimal apparatus were obtained by cannulation of the duct and use of polyurethane cast material. Dacryocystorhinography accurately revealed the nasolacrimal apparatus and compared favorably with gross dissections and polyurethane casts.

Hematologic values arid cellular morphologic features were evaluated for 38 healthy adult llamas. Reference ranges were determined for PCV, reticulocyte concentration, leukocyte concentration, and leukocyte differential counts. The approach used in this study was to focus on hematologic values that may be determined by use of techniques readily available to the practicing veterinarian and nonveterinary laboratory. Unique cellular morphologic features commonly observed and interpreted as normal included large granular lymphocytes, hyposegmented eosinophil nuclei, folded erythrocytes, and hemoglobin crystals.

Healthy conjunctival sacs of 88 animals of 3 species of captive camelids (Lama glama, Lama guanicoe, Lama pacos) and llama-guanaco hybrids were sampled for bacterial and mycoplasmal flora. Mycoplasmas were not isolated from any animal. Eleven genera of bacteria were isolated. The most frequent isolates were Staphyloccus epidermidis and Pseudomonas spp. Nine varieties of Pseudomonas were found, which represented at least 3 Pseudomonas species. Many of the bacterial isolates (especially the pseudomonads) are potential pathogens in the eyes of these camelids.