The helminths of 15 Helmeted Guineafowls were collected in the north of Limpopo Province, South Africa. A total of 11 cestode, ten nematode and a single acanthocephalan species were present. Species richness ranged from 8 to 16 species per host, and nine core and nine secondary species accounted for 40.9 % of the component parasite community. The remaining 18.2 % comprised satellite species. Core species represented 91 % of all the worms present. Individual intensities ranged from 66 to 2 724 per host and overdispersion was pronounced. There were no significant differences regarding the abundance and species richness between male and female hosts. The number of component species and overall abundance did not differ significantly between juvenile and adult hosts, but Cyrnea parroti was significantly more abundant, and the prevalence of Hadjelia truncata was higher in young birds than in adults. In contrast, Gongylonema congolense and Porogynia paronai were absent in juveniles, but had a prevalence of 60 % and 70 %, respectively, in adults. Pairwise Spearman's rank correlation yielded one positive and 10 negative significant species correlations. A single trematode, Dicrocoelium macrostomum, was collected from five of nine guineafowls, but was not included in the helminth community study.

This study investigated the withdrawal periods (WP) of two intramammary antibiotics Cloxamast LC (Intervet SA) and Spectrazol Milking Cow (Schering-Plough Animal Health) in dairy goats and compared them to those recommended for use in cattle. The WP for Cloxamast LC, measured by the Thermo Resistant Inhibitory Substances (TRIS) test, was 60 h in composite samples, 56 h in udder half samples, and the dye was visible for up to 56 h. The WP was significantly shorter than the 72 h recommended WP for use in cattle. It was however significantly longer when the 24 h safety margin (48 h) was subtracted from the recommended WP for cattle. For Spectrazol Milking Cow the antibiotics could be detected by the TRIS test for 61 h in composite samples and 59 h in udder half samples. This did not differ significantly from the recommended 60 h WP for cattle. However, it was significantly longer than that recommended for use in cattle without the 24 h safety margin. There was no significant difference in WP between infected and non-infected udder halves, while there was a weak positive correlation between WP and stage of lactation (R² = 0.253). There was a moderate positive correlation (R² = 0.583) between the TRIS test and the presence of dye in milk in udder half samples and between WP in both udder half and composite milk samples (R² = 0.456). Weak to moderate positive correlations were present between milk yield and the WP in both udder half (R² = 0.414) and composite (R² = 0.262) milk samples. Significant differences (P < 0.001) were also observed between the milk yield of udder halves with and without palpable udder damage and between samples that tested TRIS positive and negative on both composite (P = 0.008) and udder half samples (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference between the milk yield of samples with or without dye. There was a significant difference in milk yield between infected and non-infected udder halves (P = 0.054) and a weak negative correlation between milk yield and stage of lactation (R² = -0.379).

This study investigated the withdrawal periods (WP) of two intramammary antibiotics Cloxamast LC (Intervet SA) and Spectrazol Milking Cow (Schering-Plough Animal Health) in dairy goats and compared them to those recommended for use in cattle. The WP for Cloxamast LC, measured by the Thermo Resistant Inhibitory Substances (TRIS) test, was 60 h in composite samples, 56 h in udder half samples, and the dye was visible for up to 56 h. The WP was significantly shorter than the 72 h recommended WP for use in cattle. It was however significantly longer when the 24 h safety margin (48 h) was subtracted from the recommended WP for cattle. For Spectrazol Milking Cow the antibiotics could be detected by the TRIS test for 61 h in composite samples and 59 h in udder half samples. This did not differ significantly from the recommended 60 h WP for cattle. However, it was significantly longer than that recommended for use in cattle without the 24 h safety margin. There was no significant difference in WP between infected and non-infected udder halves, while there was a weak positive correlation between WP and stage of lactation (R2 = 0.253). There was a moderate positive correlation (R2 = 0.583) between the TRIS test and the presence of dye in milk in udder half samples and between WP in both udder half and composite milk samples (R2 = 0.456). Weak to moderate positive correlations were present between milk yield and the WP in both udder half (R2 = 0.414) and composite (R2 = 0.262) milk samples. Significant differences (P < 0.001) were also observed between the milk yield of udder halves with and without palpable udder damage and between samples that tested TRIS positive and negative on both composite (P = 0.008) and udder half samples (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference between the milk yield of samples with or without dye. There was a significant difference in milk yield between infected and non-infected udder halves (P = 0.054) and a weak negative correlation between milk yield and stage of lactation (R2 = -0.379).

In 2000 and 2001 Orange River levels were higher than normal: associated serious outbreaks of blackfly had a substantial detrimental impact on the local economy. The poor control was attributed to the suspected development of larval resistance to temephos. A long-term solution to blackfly control, through the identification of a suitable replacement to temephos for use during high flow conditions, was proposed. This study, however, failed to identify or register a suitable larvicide for use during high flow conditions. Although permethrin was highly effective against blackfly larvae, it was rejected because of its detrimental impacts on non-target fauna. Various formulations of locally produced dry Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (B.t.i.) were tested, but these were ineffective against blackflies. The study also confirmed that resistance to temephos has developed among Simulium chutteri in the middle and lower Orange River. The feasibility of "reversing" the resistance to temephos through the use of the synergist piperonyl butoxide (PEO) was investigated, but the results were not favourable. Furthermore, PBO was highly toxic to blackflies and non-target organisms, and was not recommended for further testing. This means that B.t.i. currently remains the only symptomatic measure of treatment currently applied. Although resistance to B.t.i. has not been reported for blackflies elsewhere in South Africa, there is a need to remain vigilant and to implement an operational strategy that minimizes the risks of resistance developing.

In 2000 and 2001 Orange River levels were higher than normal: associated serious outbreaks of blackfly had a substantial detrimental impact on the local economy. The poor control was attributed to the suspected development of larval resistance to temephos. A long-term solution to blackfly control, through the identification of a suitable replacement to temephos for use during high flow conditions, was proposed. This study, however, failed to identify or register a suitable larvicide for use during high flow conditions. Although permethrin was highly effective against blackfly larvae, it was rejected because of its detrimental impacts on non-target fauna. Various formulations of locally produced dry Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (B.t.i.) were tested, but these were ineffective against blackflies. The study also confirmed that resistance to temephos has developed among Simulium chutteri in the middle and lower Orange River. The feasibility of "reversing" the resistance to temephos through the use of the synergist piperonyl butoxide (PBO) was investigated, but the results were not favourable. Furthermore, PBO was highly toxic to blackflies and non-target organisms, and was not recommended for further testing. This means that B.t.i. currently remains the only symptomatic measure of treatment currently applied. Although resistance to B.t.i. has not been reported for blackflies elsewhere in South Africa, there is a need to remain vigilant and to implement an operational strategy that minimizes the risks of resistance developing.

Spirocerca lupi (Spirurida: Spirocercidae) is a cosmopolitan parasite, principally of domestic dogs and dung beetles are its main intermediate hosts. In South Africa there has recently been growing concern over the upsurge of reported cases of clinical spirocercosis in dogs, while little is known or understood about the dynamics of the host-parasite associations between dung beetles and this nematode. We determined and compared the prevalence of infection in dung beetles between rural, urban and periurban areas of Tshwane (Pretoria) Metropole. Dung beetles were sampled during April and October 2006, at various localities in each of these areas. Localities were selected on the basis of being focal areas of high infection with S. lupi in dogs. Pig, dog and cow dung-baited pitfall traps were used for sampling the beetles. Trap contents were collected 48 h after the traps had been set and only dung beetles were collected from the traps. In total, 453 specimens belonging to 18 species were collected from 63 pitfall traps in all three areas. The numbers of species that were collected varied among the three areas. Dung beetles, irrespective of species (18) and numbers (447), predominantly preferred pig dung. The prevalence of dung beetles infected with the larvae of S. lupi varied considerably in the three areas. In the urban area 13.5 % of the dung beetles dissected were infected, while the prevalence of S. lupi in dung beetles in the rural area was 2.3 %. All the dung beetles that were infected with this nematode showed a preference for omnivore (pig and dog) dung.

2-Phenoxyethanol was used as an anaesthetic to translocate 102 species of fishes representing 30 families from the Sea World aquarium on Durban's beachfront to uShaka Marine World. Most fishes responded well to a final anaesthetic concentration of 0,150 mℓ / ℓ and there were no mortalities.

2-Phenoxyethanol was used as an anaesthetic to translocate 102 species of fishes representing 30 families from the Sea World aquarium on Durban's beachfront to uShaka Marine World. Most fishes responded well to a final anaesthetic concentration of 0,150 mí/í and there were no mortalities.

Acute and long-term effects of a single, relative lyhigh oral dose (0.25a nd 0.30 mg/kg) of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) on the survival and productivity of sheep were evaluated to establish a better understanding of 1080 poisoning and identify more specific changes diagnostic of toxicosis. In survivors, clinical signs of acute 1080 toxicosis such as salivation and lethar gywere generally very mild. Fasted animals were more prone to 1080 toxicity. In animals that died, more severe signs, including tachypnoea, dyspnoea, and tremors occurred for 15-20 min prior to death. 1080 concentrations were highest in the blood> heart> skeletal muscle> liver. 1080 could not be detected in any of these organs of the animals that survived. Serum citratec oncentratione were elevated for 4 days after dosing. No clinical or biochemical abnormalities were found in any animal after 4 days. Histopathological lesions were most marked in the heart and lung with inflammation, necrosis, and scattered foci of fibrous tissue in the myocardium, pulmonary oedema and inflammation of the lung. No adverse longterm effects on general health or reproductive performance were observed in any sheep that survived the first 4 days following exposure to 1080. The most reliable diagnostic in dicators of 1080 exposure in sheep were measurement of its residues in blood, skeletal muscle and ruminal contents, increased serum citratec oncentratione; l evated heart rate,and characteristic electrocardiograpchh anges(up to 4 days after exposure). Death from 1080 is most likely to occur within 96 h, and animals that survived this period appeared normal.

Acute and long-term effects of a single, relatively high oral dose (0.25 and 0.30 mg/kg) of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) on the survival and productivity of sheep were evaluated to establish a better understanding of 1080 poisoning and identify more specific changes diagnostic of toxicosis. In survivors, clinical signs of acute 1080 toxicosis such as salivation and lethargy were generally very mild. Fasted animals were more prone to 1080 toxicity. In animals that died, more severe signs, including tachypnoea, dyspnoea, and tremors occurred for 15-20 min prior to death. 1080 concentrations were highest in the blood > heart > skeletal muscle > liver. 1080 could not be detected in any of these organs of the animals that survived. Serum citrate concentrations were elevated for 4 days after dosing. No clinical or biochemical abnormalities were found in any animal after 4 days. Histopathological lesions were most marked in the heart and lung with inflammation, necrosis, and scattered foci of fibrous tissue in the myocardium, pulmonary oedema and inflammation of the lung. No adverse long-term effects on general health or reproductive performance were observed in any sheep that survived the first 4 days following exposure to 1080. The most reliable diagnostic indicators of 1080 exposure in sheep were measurement of its residues in blood, skeletal muscle and ruminal contents, increased serum citrate concentration, elevated heart rate, and characteristic electrocardiograph changes (up to 4 days after exposure). Death from 1080 is most likely to occur within 96 h, and animals that survived this period appeared normal.

The daily requirement for calcium and phosphorus by giraffes to sustain the growth and maintenance of their skeletons is large. The source of sufficient calcium is browse. The source of necessary phosphorus is obscure, but it could be osteophagia, a frequently observed behaviour in giraffes. We have assessed whether bone ingested as a result of osteophagia can be digested in the rumen. Bone samples from cancellous (cervical vertebrae) and dense bones (metacarpal shaft) were immersed in the rumens of five sheep, for a period of up to 30 days, and the effect compared to immersion in distilled water and in artificial saliva for 30 days. Distilled water had no effect on the bones. Dense bone samples were softened by exposure to the saliva and rumen fluid, but did not lose either calcium or phosphorus. In saliva and rumen fluid the cancellous bone samples also softened, and their mass and volume decreased as a result of exposure to saliva, but in neither fluid did they lose significant amounts of calcium and phosphorus. We conclude that although saliva and rumen fluid can soften ingested bones, there is an insignificant digestion of bones in the rumen.

The daily requirement for calcium and phosphorus by giraffes to sustain the growth and maintenance of their skeletons is large. The source of sufficient calcium is browse. The source of necessary phosphorus is obscure, but it could be osteophagia, a frequently observed behaviour in giraffes. We have assessed whether bone ingested as a result of osteophagia can be digested in the rumen. Bone samples from cancellous (cervical vertebrae) and dense bones (metacarpal shaft) were immersed in the rumens of five sheep, for a period of up to 30 days, and the effect compared to immersion in distilled water and in artificial saliva for 30 days. Distilled water had no effect on the bones. Dense bone samples were softened by exposure to the saliva and rumen fluid, but did not lose either calcium or phosphorus. In saliva and rumen fluid the cancellous bone samples also softened, and their mass and volume decreased as a result of exposure to saliva, but in neither fluid did they lose significant amounts of calcium and phosphorus. We conclude that although saliva and rumen fluid can soften ingested bones, there is an insignificant digestion of bones in the rumen.

In four Kenyan pig breeding units the pregnancy diagnosis of sows has been carried out in two groups: Group 1 (n = 1911): the sows were transrectaly pregnancy tested between Days 1722 post-mating by ultrasound. Sows testing non-pregnant immediately received one dose of 400 IU pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) (equine chorion gonadotropin, eCG) and 200 IU human chorion gonadotropin (hCG). On showing signs of oestrous, the animals were subsequently artificially inseminated (AI). Group 2 (n = 1923): sows were pregnancy tested by serum progesterone (P4)-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) on Day 17 post-breeding. P4 concentrations were categorized as positive (> 5 ng/ml) or negative (< 5 ng/ml). Sows testing non-pregnant immediately received one dose of 400 IU PMSG and 200 IU hCG by injection, and were subsequently artificially inseminated. The following parameters were evaluated: sows diagnosed non-pregnant, days from first post-weaning insemination until the sows were inseminated at their first return to oestrus; farrowing rate and total piglets born and number of live-born piglets in litters. The percentage of sows diagnosed non-pregnant in the two groups, as well as the totals of born piglets and of live-born piglets in litters did not differ significantly between the two groups. The number of days from the first post-weaning mating until the sows were artificially inseminated at their first return to oestrus and the administration of eCG and hCG was shorter (P < 0.01) and farrowing rate was higher (P < 0.01) in the ELISA-tested sows.

In four Kenyan pig breeding units the pregnancy diagnosis of sows has been carried out in two groups: Group 1 (n = 1911): the sows were transrectaly pregnancy tested between Days 17-22 post-mating by ultrasound. Sows testing non-pregnant immediately received one dose of 400 IU pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) (equine chorion gonadotropin, eCG) and 200 IU human chorion gonadotropin (hCG). On showing signs of oestrous, the animals were subsequently artificially inseminated (AI). Group 2 (n = 1923): sows were pregnancy tested by serum progesterone (P4)-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) on Day 17 post-breeding. P4 concentrations were categorized as positive (&gt; 5 ng/ml) or negative (< 5 ng/ml). Sows testing nonpregnant immediately received one dose of 400 IU PMSG and 200 IU hCG by injection, and were subsequently artificially inseminated. The following parameters were evaluated: sows diagnosed non-pregnant, days from first post-weaning insemination until the sows were inseminated at their first return to oestrus; farrowing rate and total piglets born and number of live-born piglets in litters. The percentage of sows diagnosed non-pregnant in the two groups, as well as the totals of born piglets and of live-born piglets in litters did not differ significantly between the two groups. The number of days from the first post-weaning mating until the sows were artificially inseminated at their first return to oestrus and the administration of eCG and hCG was shorter (P < 0.01) and farrowing rate was higher (P < 0.01) in the ELISA-tested sows.

Nigeria and several other nations have recently been affected by outbreaks of the Asian H5N1 strain of highly pathogenic notifiable avian influenza (HPNAI) virus, which affects the poultry sector most heavily. This study analysed previous methods of assessing losses due to avian influenza, and used a revised economic model to calculate costs associated with the current avian influenza outbreaks. The evaluation used epidemiological data, production figures and other input parameters to determine the final costs. An infection involving 10 % of the commercial bird population will cost Nigeria about $245 million and a worse scenario may lead to a loss of around $700 million. The results urge governments to invest more in measures aimed at the effective prevention of HPNAI and to consider the huge economic losses associated with the disease. Finally, an inter-disciplinary approach to managing and controlling HPNAI outbreaks is encouraged.

Nigeria and several other nations have recently been affected by outbreaks of the Asian H5N1 strain of highly pathogenic notifiable avian influenza (HPNAI) virus, which affects the pou sts associated with the current avian influenza outbreaks. The evaluation used epidemiological data, production figures and other input parameters to determine the final costs. An infection involving 10 % of the commercial bird population will cost Nigeria about $245 million and a worse scenario may lead to a loss of around $700 million. The results urge governments to invest more in measures aimed at the effective prevention of HPNAI and to consider the huge economic losses associated with the disease. Finally, an inter-disciplinary approach to managing and controlling HPNAI outbreaks is encouraged.