Malignant ovine theileriosis is caused by Theileria lestoquardi, which is highly pathogenic in sheep. Theileriosis involves different organs in ruminants. Little is known about the role of proinflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of T. lestoquardi infection. The aim of this study was to measure concentration changes of proinflammatory cytokines and immunoglobulin G (IgG) during an ovine experimental theileriosis and correlate it with clinical and haematological parameters. During an experimental study, seven healthy Baluchi sheep (four females and three males) about 6–8 months old were infected with T. lestoquardi by feeding of infected unfed ticks on the sheep’s ears. The infected sheep were clinically examined during the study and blood samples were collected on days 0, 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, 14, 17 and 21. The haematological parameters were analysed by an automatic veterinary haematology cell counter and the inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and IgG were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. All infected sheep had temperatures above 40 °C on days 3–4 post infection (PI). The maximum temperature was noted on day 7, and it remained high until day 21. The parasitaemia of T. lestoquardi infection increased from 0.01% (day 7 PI) to 3.3% (day 21 PI). The mean white blood cell (WBC), red blood cell (RBC), lymphocyte, neutrophil and platelet values slightly increased on day 2 PI and decreased by day 17 and day 21 PI. The percentage parasitaemia and fever had a negative correlation with the numbers of WBCs, RBCs, lymphocytes, neutrophils and platelets. The serum concentration of IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-γ cytokines increased and peaked on day 12 and thereafter decreased to levels lower than 0. Out of all tested cytokines, the concentration of IL-6 was significantly higher, as early as day 2 PI. No significant changes were observed for the IgG levels during the course of disease. A significant and strong correlation was observed between IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-γ values and a moderate correlation between IL-6 and the numbers of lymphocytes in the present study. A strong correlation was determined between the percentage parasitaemia and haematological parameters in T. lestoquardi-infected sheep. In addition, preliminary results indicate that the measurement of the serum concentrations of IL-6 in combination with haematological parameters could be considered a good marker to estimate the pathogenicity of T. lestoquardi strain.

Malignant ovine theileriosis is caused by Theileria lestoquardi, which is highly pathogenic in sheep. Theileriosis involves different organs in ruminants. Little is known about the role of proinflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of T. lestoquardi infection. The aim of this study was to measure concentration changes of proinflammatory cytokines and immunoglobulin G (IgG) during an ovine experimental theileriosis and correlate it with clinical and haematological parameters. During an experimental study, seven healthy Baluchi sheep (four females and three males) about 6-8 months old were infected with T. lestoquardi by feeding of infected unfed ticks on the sheep's ears. The infected sheep were clinically examined during the study and blood samples were collected on days 0, 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, 14, 17 and 21. The haematological parameters were analysed by an automatic veterinary haematology cell counter and the inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and IgG were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. All infected sheep had temperatures above 40 °C on days 3-4 post infection (PI). The maximum temperature was noted on day 7, and it remained high until day 21. The parasitaemia of T. lestoquardi infection increased from 0.01% (day 7 PI) to 3.3% (day 21 PI). The mean white blood cell (WBC), red blood cell (RBC), lymphocyte, neutrophil and platelet values slightly increased on day 2 PI and decreased by day 17 and day 21 PI. The percentage parasitaemia and fever had a negative correlation with the numbers of WBCs, RBCs, lymphocytes, neutrophils and platelets. The serum concentration of IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-γ cytokines increased and peaked on day 12 and thereafter decreased to levels lower than 0. Out of all tested cytokines, the concentration of IL-6 was significantly higher, as early as day 2 PI. No significant changes were observed for the IgG levels during the course of disease. A significant and strong correlation was observed between IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-γ values and a moderate correlation between IL-6 and the numbers of lymphocytes in the present study. A strong correlation was determined between the percentage parasitaemia and haematological parameters in T. lestoquardi-infected sheep. In addition, preliminary results indicate that the measurement of the serum concentrations of IL-6 in combination with haematological parameters could be considered a good marker to estimate the pathogenicity of T. lestoquardi strain.

Caprine pediculosis is an ectoparasitic disease of great concern among goat farmers in India. It may be caused by either sucking lice or chewing lice; the latter one results in severe skin lesions, leading to production loss. This study evaluated the effectiveness of the macrocytic lactone drug, ivermectin, administered via subcutaneous injection, against chewing lice Bovicola (Damalinia) caprae infestation in naturally infested goats. The study was conducted on 20 goats with severe B. caprae infestation. Animals of group A (n = 10) were treated using a single dose of ivermectin (200 µg/kg body weight) subcutaneously and animals of group B (n = 10) underwent placebo therapy using normal saline. The animals were examined on days 0, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 42 and 56 for lice counts. There was 100% elimination of lice in all animals of group A and effective protection from re-infection remained at least for 21 days. Considerable improvement in haematological parameters was also observed by day 21. Based on this study, ivermectin injected via a subcutaneous route can be used effectively for the therapeutic and prophylactic management of chewing lice infestation in goats maintained under an extensive grazing system.

Caprine pediculosis is an ectoparasitic disease of great concern among goat farmers in India. It may be caused by either sucking lice or chewing lice; the latter one results in severe skin lesions, leading to production loss. This study evaluated the effectiveness of the macrocytic lactone drug, ivermectin, administered via subcutaneous injection, against chewing lice Bovicola (Damalinia) caprae infestation in naturally infested goats. The study was conducted on 20 goats with severe B. caprae infestation. Animals of group A (n = 10) were treated using a single dose of ivermectin (200 µg/kg body weight) subcutaneously and animals of group B (n = 10) underwent placebo therapy using normal saline. The animals were examined on days 0, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 42 and 56 for lice counts. There was 100% elimination of lice in all animals of group A and effective protection from re-infection remained at least for 21 days. Considerable improvement in haematological parameters was also observed by day 21. Based on this study, ivermectin injected via a subcutaneous route can be used effectively for the therapeutic and prophylactic management of chewing lice infestation in goats maintained under an extensive grazing system.

Salmonellosis is a major threat facing the poultry industry globally. This study was conducted to investigate the level of Salmonella contaminations and determine the resistance pattern of isolates obtained from selected poultry farms in Kwara State, a transition state between southern and northern regions of Nigeria. A total of 900 samples were collected between January and August 2017, from the poultry environment, apparently including healthy and dead birds. Salmonella was isolated and identified using standard bacteriological methods. All presumptive Salmonella isolates were serotyped and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using 11 different antimicrobials. A total of 58 (6.4%) Salmonella isolates were obtained, and the isolation rate was only statistically significant (p < 0.05) in live birds. The isolates comprised of 13 serovars. The three predominant serovars, Salmonella enterica ser. 6.7:d:- (29.0%), Salmonella Agama (28.0%) and Salmonella Typhimurium (16.0%), were isolated from all three sample types. Rare serovars like Salmonella Albany, Salmonella Colindale, Salmonella Istanbul, Salmonella Larochelle, Salmonella Nigeria and Salmonella Orion were also isolated in this study. A high frequency of resistance was generally observed with all the isolates exhibiting a total of (100%) resistance to ampicillin, cefotaxime and ceftazidime. This study documents the first predominant isolation of S. enterica ser. 6.7:d:- and S. Agama from chickens. It also documents the high frequency of fluoroquinolone and cephalosporins resistance of the isolates indicating the presence of selective pressure in the environment. Controls and targeted interventions against Salmonella and the frequent occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in chickens should be initiated to prevent the spread of this organism.

Salmonellosis is a major threat facing the poultry industry globally. This study was conducted to investigate the level of Salmonella contaminations and determine the resistance pattern of isolates obtained from selected poultry farms in Kwara State, a transition state between southern and northern regions of Nigeria. A total of 900 samples were collected between January and August 2017, from the poultry environment, apparently including healthy and dead birds. Salmonella was isolated and identified using standard bacteriological methods. All presumptive Salmonella isolates were serotyped and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using 11 different antimicrobials. A total of 58 (6.4%) Salmonella isolates were obtained, and the isolation rate was only statistically significant (p < 0.05) in live birds. The isolates comprised of 13 serovars. The three predominant serovars, Salmonella enterica ser. 6.7:d:- (29.0%), Salmonella Agama (28.0%) and Salmonella Typhimurium (16.0%), were isolated from all three sample types. Rare serovars like Salmonella Albany, Salmonella Colindale, Salmonella Istanbul, Salmonella Larochelle, Salmonella Nigeria and Salmonella Orion were also isolated in this study. A high frequency of resistance was generally observed with all the isolates exhibiting a total of (100%) resistance to ampicillin, cefotaxime and ceftazidime. This study documents the first predominant isolation of S. enterica ser. 6.7:d:- and S. Agama from chickens. It also documents the high frequency of fluoroquinolone and cephalosporins resistance of the isolates indicating the presence of selective pressure in the environment. Controls and targeted interventions against Salmonella and the frequent occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in chickens should be initiated to prevent the spread of this organism.

The effective control of tsetse flies (Diptera; Glossinidae), the biological vectors of trypanosome parasites that cause human African trypanosomosis and African animal trypanosomosis throughout sub-Saharan Africa, is crucial for the development of productive livestock systems. The degree of genetic isolation of the targeted populations, which indicate reinvasion potential from uncontrolled areas, will be critical to establish a control strategy. Molecular and morphometrics markers were used to assess the degree of genetic isolation between seemingly fragmented populations of Glossina brevipalpis Newstead and Glossina austeni Newstead present in South Africa. These populations were also compared with flies from adjacent areas in Mozambique and Eswatini. For the molecular markers, deoxyribonucleic acid was extracted, a r16S2 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed and the PCR product sequenced. Nine landmarks were used for the morphometrics study as defined by vein intersections in the right wings of female flies. Generalised Procrustes analyses and regression on centroid size were used to determine the Cartesian coordinates for comparison between populations. Both methods indicated an absence of significant barriers to gene flow between the G. brevipalpis and G. austeni populations of South Africa and southern Mozambique. Sustainable control can only be achieved if implemented following an area-wide management approach against the entire G. brevipalpis and G. austeni populations of South Africa and southern Mozambique. Limited gene flow detected between the G. austeni population from Eswatini and that of South Africa or Mozambique may imply that these two populations are in the proses of becoming isolated.

The effective control of tsetse flies (Diptera; Glossinidae), the biological vectors of trypanosome parasites that cause human African trypanosomosis and African animal trypanosomosis throughout sub-Saharan Africa, is crucial for the development of productive livestock systems. The degree of genetic isolation of the targeted populations, which indicate reinvasion potential from uncontrolled areas, will be critical to establish a control strategy. Molecular and morphometrics markers were used to assess the degree of genetic isolation between seemingly fragmented populations of Glossina brevipalpis Newstead and Glossina austeni Newstead present in South Africa. These populations were also compared with flies from adjacent areas in Mozambique and Eswatini. For the molecular markers, deoxyribonucleic acid was extracted, a r16S2 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed and the PCR product sequenced. Nine landmarks were used for the morphometrics study as defined by vein intersections in the right wings of female flies. Generalised Procrustes analyses and regression on centroid size were used to determine the Cartesian coordinates for comparison between populations. Both methods indicated an absence of significant barriers to gene flow between the G. brevipalpis and G. austeni populations of South Africa and southern Mozambique. Sustainable control can only be achieved if implemented following an area-wide management approach against the entire G. brevipalpis and G. austeni populations of South Africa and southern Mozambique. Limited gene flow detected between the G. austeni population from Eswatini and that of South Africa or Mozambique may imply that these two populations are in the proses of becoming isolated.

The classification and description of digenean trematodes are commonly accomplished by using morphological features, especially in adult stages. The aim of this study was to provide an analysis of the genetic composition of larval digenean trematodes using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequence analysis. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted from clinostomatid metacercaria, 27-spined echinostomatid redia, avian schistosome cercaria and strigeid metacercaria from various dams in the proximity of Tshwane metropolitan, South Africa. Polymerase chain reaction was performed using the extracted DNA with primers targeting various regions within the larval digenean trematodes’ genomes. Agarose gel electrophoresis technique was used to visualise the PCR products. The PCR products were sequenced on an Applied Bioinformatics (ABI) genetic analyser platform. Genetic information obtained from this study had a higher degree of discrimination than the morphological characteristics of seemingly similar organisms.

The classification and description of digenean trematodes are commonly accomplished by using morphological features, especially in adult stages. The aim of this study was to provide an analysis of the genetic composition of larval digenean trematodes using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequence analysis. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted from clinostomatid metacercaria, 27-spined echinostomatid redia, avian schistosome cercaria and strigeid metacercaria from various dams in the proximity of Tshwane metropolitan, South Africa. Polymerase chain reaction was performed using the extracted DNA with primers targeting various regions within the larval digenean trematodes' genomes. Agarose gel electrophoresis technique was used to visualise the PCR products. The PCR products were sequenced on an Applied Bioinformatics (ABI) genetic analyser platform. Genetic information obtained from this study had a higher degree of discrimination than the morphological characteristics of seemingly similar organisms.