Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV) is a highly contagious, fatal and economically important viral disease of small ruminants that is still endemic and militates against the production of sheep and goats in endemic areas of the world. The aim of this study was to describe the viral strains within the country. This was carried out by collecting tissue and swab samples from sheep and goats in various agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. The phylogeny of archived PPRV strains or isolates and those circulating and causing recent outbreaks was determined by sequencing of the nucleoprotein (N)-gene. Twenty tissue and swab samples from apparently healthy and sick sheep and goats were collected randomly from 18 states, namely 3 states in each of the 6 agro-ecological zones visited. A total of 360 samples were collected. A total of 35 samples of 360 (9.7%) tested positive by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, of which 25 were from oculo-nasal swabs and 10 were from tissue samples. Neighbour-joining phylogenetic analysis using Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony (PAUP) identified four different lineages, that is, lineages I, II, III and IV. Interestingly, the Nigerian strains described in this study grouped in two separate major lineages, that is, lineages II and IV. Strains from Sokoto, Oyo, Plateau and Ondo states grouped according to the historical distribution of PPRV together with the Nigerian 75/1 strain of lineage II, while other strains from Sokoto, Oyo, Plateau, Akwa-Ibom, Adamawa, Kaduna, Lagos, Bauchi, Niger and Kano states grouped together with the East African and Asian strains of lineage IV. This finding confirms that both lineage II and IV strains of PPRV are circulating in Nigeria. Previously, only strains of lineage II were found to be present in the country.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the biochemical and biomechanical properties of native and decellularized superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFTs) and deep digital flexor tendons (DDFTs) harvested from the pelvic limbs of orthopedically normal dogs. SAMPLE 22 commercially supplied tendon specimens (10 SDFT and 12 DDFT) harvested from the pelvic limbs of 13 canine cadavers. PROCEDURES DNA, glycosaminoglycan, collagen, and protein content were measured to biochemically compare native and decellularized SDFT and DDFT specimens. Mechanical testing was performed on 4 groups consisting of native tendons (5 SDFTs and 6 DDFTs) and decellularized tendons (5 SDFTs and 6 DDFTs). All tendons were preconditioned, and tension was applied to failure at 0.5 mm/s. Failure mode was video recorded for each tendon. Load-deformation and stress-strain curves were generated; calculations were performed to determine the Young modulus and stiffness. Biochemical and biomechanical data were statistically compared by use of the Wilcoxon rank sum test. RESULTS Decellularized SDFT and DDFT specimens had significantly less DNA content than did native tendons. No significant differences were identified between native and decellularized specimens with respect to glycosaminoglycan, collagen, or protein content. Biomechanical comparison yielded no significant intra- or intergroup differences. All DDFT constructs failed at the tendon-clamp interface, whereas nearly half (4/10) of the SDFT constructs failed at midsubstance. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Decellularized commercial canine SDFT and DDFT specimens had similar biomechanical properties, compared with each other and with native tendons. The decellularization process significantly decreased DNA content while minimizing loss of extracellular matrix components. Decellularized canine flexor tendons may provide suitable, biocompatible graft scaffolds for bioengineering applications such as tendon or ligament repair.

The influence of the type of material used, knot configuration, and use of an additional throw on the tensile force at failure, the elongation, and the mode of failure of different configurations of linear sutures and knotted suture loops was evaluated in this in-vitro mechanical study. We hypothesized that all types of knots would significantly influence the initial force and elongation of suture materials and would influence the force and elongation at which the knotted loops break, but not their mode of failure. A total of 432 samples of 4 types of size 3-0 suture material (polydioxanone, polyglecaprone 25, polyglactin 910, and nylon), representing 9 configurations, were tested in a tensiometer. The configurations were 1 linear suture without a knot and the following loops: square (SQ) knot; surgeon's (SU) knot; granny (GR) knot; and sliding half-hitch (SHH) knot using either 4 and 5 or 3 and 4 throws, depending on the material. For polydioxanone, SQ and SU knots did not decrease the initial force at failure of the suture. Granny (GR) and SHH knots decreased the tensile force at failure and elongation by premature failure of the loop. For polyglecaprone 25, all knots decreased the initial force at failure of the suture, with SHH being weaker than the other knots. For coated polyglactin 910, all knots decreased the initial force at failure of the suture and slippage increased significantly compared with the other 3 sutures. The use of SQ knots with 3 throws did not result in a safe knot. For nylon, knots did not alter the original mechanics of the suture. In conclusion, all knots and types of suture material do not necessarily have the same effect on the initial tensile force at failure of suture materials.

The objective of this study was to develop a technique for carrying out repeated biopsies of the mammary gland of lactating dairy cows that provides enough material to monitor enzyme activities and gene expression in mammary secretory tissue. A total of 16 Holstein cows were subjected to 4 mammary biopsies each at 3-week intervals for a total of 64 biopsies. A 0.75-cm incision was made through the skin and subcutaneous tissue of the mammary gland and a trocar and cannula were inserted using a circular motion. The trocar was withdrawn and a syringe was plugged into the base of the cannula to create a vacuum for sampling mammary tissue. To reduce bleeding, hand pressure was put on the surgery site after biopsy and skin closure and ice was applied for at least 2 h after the biopsy using a cow bra. The entire procedure took an average of 25 min. Two attempts were usually enough to obtain 800 mg of tissue. Visual examination of milk samples 10 d after the biopsy indicated no trace of blood, except in samples from 2 cows. All wounds healed without infection and subcutaneous hematomas resorbed within 7 d. There was no incidence of mastitis throughout the lactation. This technique provides a new tool for biopsy of the mammary gland repeated at short intervals with the main effect being a decrease in milk production. Although secondary complications leading to illness or death are always a risk with any procedure, this biopsy technique was carried out without complications to the health of animals and with no incidence of mastitis during the lactation.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate repeatability and reproducibility of right ventricular Tei index (RTX) values derived from dual pulsed-wave Doppler, conventional pulsed-wave Doppler, and tissue Doppler echocardiography and to investigate relationships and repeatability among the 3 methods in healthy dogs. ANIMALS 6 healthy adult Beagles. PROCEDURE Echocardiography was performed on each dog on different days for 2 weeks (3 times/d) by 2 echocardiographers. Intraobserver within- and between-day and interobserver coefficients of variation (CV(s)) and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for RTX(s) derived from dual pulse-waved Doppler (RTX(DPD)), conventional pulsed-wave Doppler (RTX(PD)), and tissue Doppler (RTX(TD)) methods were determined. Degrees of agreement among RTX values derived from the 3 methods were assessed by modified Bland-Altman analysis. RESULTS Least squares mean (95% confidence interval) RTX(td) was 0.50 (0.46 to 0.54), which was significantly higher than that for RTX(DPD) (0.27 [0.23 to 0.31]) and RTX(PD) (0.25 [0.21 to 0.29]). Agreement between RTX(DPD) and RTX(PD) was good (bias [mean difference], 0.04 [95% confidence interval, −0.03 to 0.10]). The RTX(dpd) had high within-day (CV, 6.1; ICC, 0.77) and interobserver (CV, 3.5; ICC, 0.83) repeatability, but between-day repeatability was not high. The RTXtd had high within-day repeatability (CV, 6.0; ICC, 0.80), but between-day and interobserver repeatability were not high. Within-day, between-day, and interobserver repeatability of RTXPD were not high. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE RTX(dpd) measurement was a repeatable and reproducible method of cardiac evaluation in healthy dogs. The RTX(TD) values were significantly higher than the RTX(DPD) and RTX(PD) values; therefore, RTX values derived from different echocardiographic methods should be interpreted with caution.

Rotavirus B (RVB) infection in cattle is poorly understood. The objective of this study was to describe the epidemiological features of repeated outbreaks of epidemic diarrhea due to RVB infection in adult cattle on a large dairy farm complex in Japan. In October 2002, approximately 550 adult cows and approximately 450 in February 2005 had acute watery diarrhea at several farms on the complex. Four months before the first outbreak, RVB antibody-positive rates at subsequently affected farms were significantly lower than at non-affected farms (30% to 32% versus 61% to 67%). During the acute phase of both outbreaks, RVB antibody-positive rates in diarrheal cows tested were as low as 15% to 26%. Most of the farms affected in the second outbreak were also involved in the first outbreak. Some adult cows with RVB diarrhea in the first outbreak showed not only RVB seroresponse, but also RVB shedding in the second outbreak, although none of these cows developed diarrhea. Nucleotide sequences of the VP7 and VP4 genes revealed a close relationship between RVB strains in both outbreaks. Taken together, these results indicate that outbreaks of epidemic RVB diarrhea in adult cows might be influenced by herd immunity and could occur repeatedly at the same farms over several years. To our knowledge, this is the first report on repeated RVB infections in the same cattle.

OBJECTIVE To examine ultrasonographic predictors of ovarian development in European eels (Anguilla anguilla) undergoing hormonal treatment for assisted reproduction. ANIMALS 83 female European eels. PROCEDURES Eels received weekly IM injections of salmon pituitary extract (first injection = week 1). Ultrasonography of the ovaries was performed twice during hormonal treatment (weeks 7 and 11). Eels were identified on the basis of body weight as having an adequate response by weeks 14 to 20 or an inadequate response after injections for 21 weeks. Eels were euthanized at the end of the experiment and classified by use of ovarian histologic examination. Ovarian cross-sectional area and size of eel (ie, length3) were used to classify eels (fast responder, slow responder, or nonresponder) and to calculate an ultrasonographic-derived gonadosomatic index. Gray-level co-occurrence matrices were calculated from ovarian images, and 22 texture features were calculated from these matrices. RESULTS The ultrasonographic-derived gonadosomatic index differed significantly between fast responders and slow responders or nonresponders at both weeks 7 and 11. Principal component analysis revealed a pattern of separation between the groups, and partial least squares discriminant analysis revealed signals in the ovarian texture that discriminated females that responded to treatment from those that did not. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Ovarian texture information in addition to morphometric variables can enhance ultrasonographic applications for assisted reproduction of eels and potentially other fish species. This was a novel, nonlethal method for classifying reproductive response of eels and the first objective texture analysis performed on ultrasonographic images of the gonads of fish.

The objective of this study was to compare the efficacy of 2 different commercial Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae vaccines and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) vaccines in regard to growth performance, microbiological and immunological analyses, and pathological observation from wean to finish (175 d of age). Pigs were administered M. hyopneumoniae and PRRSV vaccines at 7 and 21 d of age, respectively, or both at 21 d old and then challenged with both M. hyopneumoniae and PRRSV at 49 d old. Significant (P < 0.05) differences were observed between the 2 vaccinated challenged groups in average daily weight gain, nasal shedding of M. hyopneumoniae, M. hyopneumoniae-specific interferon-γ secreting cells, and macroscopic and microscopic lung lesions. Induction of interleukin-10 following PRRSV vaccination does not interfere with the immune responses induced by M. hyopneumoniae vaccine. The present study demonstrated that the single-dose vaccination regimen for M. hyopneumoniae and PRRSV vaccine is efficacious for controlling coinfection with M. hyopneumoniae and PRRSV based on clinical, microbiological, immunological, and pathological evaluation.

OBJECTIVE To characterize polymorphisms of the gene for cytochrome P450 isozyme 2D50 (CYP2D50) and the disposition of 2 CYP2D50 probe drugs, dextromethorphan and debrisoquine, in horses. ANIMALS 23 healthy horses (22 Thoroughbreds and 1 Standardbred). PROCEDURES Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in CYP2D50 were identified. Disposition of dextromethorphan (2 mg/kg) and debrisoquine (0.2 mg/kg) were determined after oral (dextromethorphan) or nasogastric (debrisoquine) administration to the horses. Metabolic ratios of plasma dextromethorphan and total dextrorphan (dextrorphan plus dextrorphan-O-β-glucuronide) and 4-hydroxydebrisoquine concentrations were calculated on the basis of the area under the plasma concentration-versus-time curve extrapolated to infinity for the parent drug divided by that for the corresponding metabolite. Pharmacokinetic data were used to categorize horses into the phenotypic drug-metabolism categories poor, extensive, and ultrarapid. Disposition patterns were compared among categories, and relationships between SNPs and metabolism categories were explored. RESULTS Gene sequencing identified 51 SNPs, including 27 nonsynonymous SNPs. Debrisoquine was minimally detected after oral administration. Disposition of dextromethorphan varied markedly among horses. Metabolic ratios for dextromethorphan ranged from 0.03 to 0.46 (mean, 0.12). On the basis of these data, 1 horse was characterized as a poor metabolizer, 18 were characterized as extensive metabolizers, and 3 were characterized as ultrarapid metabolizers. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Findings suggested that CYP2D50 is polymorphic and that the disposition of the probe drug varies markedly in horses. The polymorphisms may be related to rates of drug metabolism. Additional research involving more horses of various breeds is needed to fully explore the functional implication of polymorphisms in CYP2D50.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine after IP administration to cats undergoing ovariohysterectomy. ANIMALS 8 healthy cats. PROCEDURES Anesthesia was induced with propofol and maintained with isoflurane. Buprenorphine (0.02 mg/kg, IV) and meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg, SC) were administered. A 20-gauge catheter was inserted into a jugular vein for blood sample collection. A ventral midline incision was made, and a solution of 0.5% bupivacaine (2 mg/kg) diluted with an equal volume of saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (final concentration, 0.25% bupivacaine) was injected into the peritoneal space over the right and left ovarian pedicles and caudal aspect of the uterus before ovariohysterectomy. Cats were monitored for signs of bupivacaine toxicosis. Venous blood samples (2 mL) were collected before (time 0) and 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, 120, and 240 minutes after bupivacaine administration. Plasma bupivacaine concentrations were determined with a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined by data plotting followed by analysis with a noncompartmental model. RESULTS No signs of bupivacaine toxicosis were observed. Maximum bupivacaine plasma concentration was 1,030 ± 497.5 ng/mL at a mean ± SD value of 30 ± 24 minutes after administration. Mean elimination half-life was 4.79 ± 2.7 hours. Mean clearance indexed by bioavailability and volume of distribution indexed by bioavailability were 0.35 ± 0.18 L•h/kg and 2.10 ± 0.84 L/kg, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Intraperitoneal administration of bupivacaine resulted in concentrations that did not cause observable toxicosis. Studies to investigate analgesic effects for this technique in cats are warranted.