Abstract

Abstract

This review serves to shed light on some common infectious diseases: their names, prevalence, site of infection and diagnostic tools for identificationof six (6) neo-tropical animals that are found in Trinidad and Tobago with the potential for domestication. These are theagouti(Dasyprocta leporina/ D. agouti), lappe/paca (Cuniculus paca/ Agouti paca), capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), manicou/opossum (Didelphis marsupialis insularis), collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu/ Peccari tajucu) and red brocket deer (Mazama americana).There is over Ninety (90) references were used, with the earliest being 1951 and the most recent being in 2017.Where literature was lacking, information from other species within the same genus was incorporated and identified clearly. It was interesting to note that the majority of animals, despite being infected with pathogenic organisms were clinically healthy. In animals that showed clinical signs of disease there was a large quantity of pathogens present. This manuscript sheds some light on the pathogens that may use these animals as natural reservoirs. This review paper also includes many of the earliest identification of these pathogens in Neo-tropical animals in specific geographic regions.

This review serves to shed light on some common infectious diseases: their names, prevalence, site of infection and diagnostic tools for identificationof six (6) neo-tropical animals that are found in Trinidad and Tobago with the potential for domestication. These are theagouti(Dasyprocta leporina/ D. agouti), lappe/paca (Cuniculus paca/ Agouti paca), capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), manicou/opossum (Didelphis marsupialis insularis), collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu/ Peccari tajucu) and red brocket deer (Mazama americana).There is over Ninety (90) references were used, with the earliest being 1951 and the most recent being in 2017.Where literature was lacking, information from other species within the same genus was incorporated and identified clearly. It was interesting to note that the majority of animals, despite being infected with pathogenic organisms were clinically healthy. In animals that showed clinical signs of disease there was a large quantity of pathogens present. This manuscript sheds some light on the pathogens that may use these animals as natural reservoirs. This review paper also includes many of the earliest identification of these pathogens in Neo-tropical animals in specific geographic regions.

This study was aimed to measure the prevalence and the association of altitude of location of raising to the risk of infestation of gastrointestinal nematode in cattle. The study was conducted using cross sectional approach. A purposive sampling method was used to select the location of study (subdistricts and villages) in the two Districts. The inclusion criteria for the lowland were the location with altitude 200 m above sea level and the subdistricts (villages) of North Aceh District. The exclusion criteria for lowland was the location 200 m above sea level. Then, the inclusion criteria for the highland were the location with altitude 200 m above sea level and the subdistricts (villages) of Central Aceh District. The exclusion criteria for lowland was the location 200 m above sea level. A random sampling was used for selection of cattle for collecting faecal sample in two locations of study. A total number of 201 cattle, both male and female, were obtained for taking faecal sample from the two Districts. Faecal sample was examined for the existence of eggs of gastrointestinal nematode. The examination was conducted using floating method. Data were analyzed descriptively. The measurement of association of altitude of location of cattle raising and sex of animals to the risk of infestation of gastrointestinal nematode were analyzed using odds ratio (OR) estimation and continued with chi-square test. The results showed a higher prevalence of gastrointestinal nematode infestation in cattle of Lowland location (25%) as compared to Highland (5.8%). As for the altitude, the cattle raising in Lowland were more than 5 times higher risk for infestation of gastrointestinal nematode as compared to Higher land location (P0.005). The female cattle in Lowland was higher risk (6.18) for infestation than Highland (P0.01). A similar trend was obtained for male cattle which higher risk in Lowland (4.12) as compared to Highland, but it was not significant (P0.05). In conclusion, by considering the altitude of location, the cattle raising in Lowland were more than 5 times higher risk for infestation of gastrointestinal nematode as compared to Higher land location. There is a variation of risk between female and male cattle in different altitude.

This study was aimed to measure the prevalence and the association of altitude of location of raising to the risk of infestation of gastrointestinal nematode in cattle. The study was conducted using cross sectional approach. A purposive sampling method was used to select the location of study (subdistricts and villages) in the two Districts. The inclusion criteria for the lowland were the location with altitude 200 m above sea level and the subdistricts (villages) of North Aceh District. The exclusion criteria for lowland was the location 200 m above sea level. Then, the inclusion criteria for the highland were the location with altitude 200 m above sea level and the subdistricts (villages) of Central Aceh District. The exclusion criteria for lowland was the location 200 m above sea level. A random sampling was used for selection of cattle for collecting faecal sample in two locations of study. A total number of 201 cattle, both male and female, were obtained for taking faecal sample from the two Districts. Faecal sample was examined for the existence of eggs of gastrointestinal nematode. The examination was conducted using floating method. Data were analyzed descriptively. The measurement of association of altitude of location of cattle raising and sex of animals to the risk of infestation of gastrointestinal nematode were analyzed using odds ratio (OR) estimation and continued with chi-square test. The results showed a higher prevalence of gastrointestinal nematode infestation in cattle of Lowland location (25%) as compared to Highland (5.8%). As for the altitude, the cattle raising in Lowland were more than 5 times higher risk for infestation of gastrointestinal nematode as compared to Higher land location (P0.005). The female cattle in Lowland was higher risk (6.18) for infestation than Highland (P0.01). A similar trend was obtained for male cattle which higher risk in Lowland (4.12) as compared to Highland, but it was not significant (P0.05). In conclusion, by considering the altitude of location, the cattle raising in Lowland were more than 5 times higher risk for infestation of gastrointestinal nematode as compared to Higher land location. There is a variation of risk between female and male cattle in different altitude.

Elephant Training Center (ETC) Way Kambas National Park (WKNP) was built to support human-elephantmitigation conflict. The small population of captive sumatran elephant in ETC WKNP need a comprehensivestrategy in order to maintain the genetic variation of each individual and avoid inbreeding drive. Currently, geneticstudies have opened new field studies in ecology, included conservation ecology. Patterns in variation of populationhas been investigated by molecular method supporting species conservation effort. The captive sumatran elephantsID Card is a necessary in database building, which included morphology, health status, and genetic profile. Geneticprofile in each ID Card was filled by cytogenetic and molecular profile for RADP result, that initiated with DNAisolation. The DNA sources collected by blood sampling protocol described by Asiyah et al. (2016) from captivesumatran elephant in ETC, WKNP, and be carried to laboratory in cold condition. The DNA sources stored at 4oCand isolated following commercial protocol. The result of DNA isolation stored at -20oC until amplificationanalysis. DNA isolation was successfully done, for further individual genetic ID building.

Elephant Training Center (ETC) Way Kambas National Park (WKNP) was built to support human-elephant mitigation conflict. The small population of captive sumatran elephant in ETC WKNP need a comprehensive strategy in order to maintain the genetic variation of each individual and avoid inbreeding drive. Currently, genetic studies have opened new field studies in ecology, included conservation ecology. Patterns in variation of population has been investigated by molecular method supporting species conservation effort. The captive sumatran elephant’s ID Card is a necessary in database building, which included morphology, health status, and genetic profile. Genetic profile in each ID Card was filled by cytogenetic and molecular profile for RADP result, that initiated with DNA isolation. The DNA sources collected by blood sampling protocol described by Asiyah et al. (2016) from captive sumatran elephant in ETC, WKNP, and be carried to laboratory in cold condition. The DNA sources stored at 4oC and isolated following commercial protocol. The result of DNA isolation stored at -20oC until amplification analysis. DNA isolation was successfully done, for further individual genetic ID building.

The activity of the cellulase enzyme and the content of phytoestrogen (genistein) forming is determined during the fermentation of soybean waste with Aspergullus niger. The analysis is performed at fermentation incubation time of 0, 48, 96, 144 and 192 hours and treatment with addition of micro nutrient (V2) and without micro nutrient (V1). Data analysis on cellulase enzyme activity on phytoestrogen forming material is performed using T test. The average of cellulase content of fermented soybean waste increases from 0.032-0.139 IU / ml (V1) and 0.061-0.158 IU / ml (V2) after 48 hours into 0.238 IU / ml (V1) and 0.245 IU / ml (V2) after 192 hours The average of genestein levels in the fermented soybean waste increases as well from 0.101 - 0.573 mg / g (V1) and 0.114 - 0.587 mg / g (V2) after 48 hours and increase into 0.722 mg / g (V1) and 0.699 mg / g (V2) after 192 hours. Statistical analysis indicates that the treatment of V1 and V2 has an effect on the increase of cellulase enzyme content and genistein level (P 0.05). The correlation between enzyme activity of cellulase and genistein on soybean waste fermented with Aspergillus niger is significant (R2 = 0,949). The relationship between the enzyme performance and its formation material is running synergistic, cellulase enzyme activity and genistein level experience significant increase during the fermentation process.

The activity of the cellulase enzyme and the content of phytoestrogen (genistein) forming is determined during the fermentation of soybean waste with Aspergullus niger. The analysis is performed at fermentation incubation time of 0, 48, 96, 144 and 192 hours and treatment with addition of micro nutrient (V2) and without micro nutrient (V1). Data analysis on cellulase enzyme activity on phytoestrogen forming material is performed using T test. The average of cellulase content of fermented soybean waste increases from 0.032-0.139 IU / ml (V1) and 0.061-0.158 IU / ml (V2) after 48 hours into 0.238 IU / ml (V1) and 0.245 IU / ml (V2) after 192 hours The average of genestein levels in the fermented soybean waste increases as well from 0.101 - 0.573 mg / g (V1) and 0.114 - 0.587 mg / g (V2) after 48 hours and increase into 0.722 mg / g (V1) and 0.699 mg / g (V2) after 192 hours. Statistical analysis indicates that the treatment of V1 and V2 has an effect on the increase of cellulase enzyme content and genistein level (P 0.05). The correlation between enzyme activity of cellulase and genistein on soybean waste fermented with Aspergillus niger is significant (R2 = 0,949). The relationship between the enzyme performance and its formation material is running synergistic, cellulase enzyme activity and genistein level experience significant increase during the fermentation process.

The need for wheat in Indonesia continues to increase and reaches 3.9 million tons per year. Around 80% of this requirement are supplied from, Canada, Australia and the United States. Gayo highland that belongs to the territory of Aceh province is potential for wheat plantation in Indonesia. Wheat plantation, however, faces various problems, one of them is pest attack. Various insect species come to wheat plantation and are predicted to get food sources both from vegetative and generative stages. The objectives of this study were to investigate composition and diversity of insect species in wheat plant either in vegetative or generative stages by adopting survey method. The results showed that total insects found in wheat plants were 2,858 individuals covering 13 ordos. Occurrence and diversity of the insects, either in vegetative and generative stages, tend to similar.

The need for wheat in Indonesia continues to increase and reaches 3.9 million tons per year. Around 80% of this requirement are supplied from, Canada, Australia and the United States. Gayo highland that belongs to the territory of Aceh province is potential for wheat plantation in Indonesia. Wheat plantation, however, faces various problems, one of them is pest attack. Various insect species come to wheat plantation and are predicted to get food sources both from vegetative and generative stages. The objectives of this study were to investigate composition and diversity of insect species in wheat plant either in vegetative or generative stages by adopting survey method. The results showed that total insects found in wheat plants were 2,858 individuals covering 13 ordos. Occurrence and diversity of the insects, either in vegetative and generative stages, tend to similar.

Medical records from 860 pigeons and doves of 24 species housed in Bristol Zoo Gardens and Wild Place Project, United Kingdom, from 2000 to 2017 were reviewed to determine the causes of morbidity in captive columbiformes. Accounted 205 cases (51.25%), infectious disease was found as the primary cause of morbidity, followed by 133 cases of trauma (33.25%), 51 (8.9%) cases of non-infectious disease, and 8 (2%) cases of husbandry-related problem. The main cause of infectious disease was parasite infection with 35% over 31% of bacterial, 26% of undetermined etiology and 9% of fungal infection. More specific, nematodiasis was the most frequent parasitic disease found, presented in 49 (69%) cases and followed by 10 (14%) trichomoniasis of all parasite infection. Meanwhile, chlamydiosis was a leading cause of bacterial infection with 22 (35%) cases recorded of over 63 bacterial infections. These results highlight the importance of preventative medicine implementation in captivity which aims to detect the disease earlier hence reducing the worsening physical condition and minimising the risk of both zoonotic and non-zoonotic disease transmissions. In addition, these findings contribute to the limited information available regarding the captive columbiformes morbidity

Medical records from 860 pigeons and doves of 24 species housed in Bristol Zoo Gardens and Wild Place Project, United Kingdom, from 2000 to 2017 were reviewed to determine the causes of morbidity in captive columbiformes. Accounted 205 cases (51.25%), infectious disease was found as the primary cause of morbidity, followed by 133 cases of trauma (33.25%), 51 (8.9%) cases of non-infectious disease, and 8 (2%) cases of husbandry-related problem. The main cause of infectious disease was parasite infection with 35% over 31% of bacterial, 26% of undetermined etiology and 9% of fungal infection. More specific, nematodiasis was the most frequent parasitic disease found, presented in 49 (69%) cases and followed by 10 (14%) trichomoniasis of all parasite infection. Meanwhile, chlamydiosis was a leading cause of bacterial infection with 22 (35%) cases recorded of over 63 bacterial infections. These results highlight the importance of preventative medicine implementation in captivity which aims to detect the disease earlier hence reducing the worsening physical condition and minimising the risk of both zoonotic and non-zoonotic disease transmissions. In addition, these findings contribute to the limited information available regarding the captive columbiformes morbidity

Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) was one of five big mammals in Way Kambas National Park (WKNP). Cytogenetic study was a part of conservation effort for sumatran elephant, especially in conservation genetic field. Captive sumatran elephants blood in Elephant Training Center (ETC) WKNP was collected to karyotype analysis. Captive sumatran elephants chromosome was analyzed by squashing technique with pretreating cells in a hypotonic solution. The study of karyotypes were made by giemsa staining applied to captive elephants blood cell. The diploid number of captive sumatran elephant was 56 both in male and female. The karyotype analysis performed different fundamental number in male and female, both of total fundamental number (FN) and autosomal fundamental number (FNa). Chromosome of female sumatran elephant showed the FN = 8, and FNa = 6, but in male sumatran elephant FN = 7, and FNa = . The karyotypes of X chromosome was large submetacentric and Y chromosome was small acrocentric.. The karyotype presented here will compilled with DNA fingerprinting analysis of all captive sumatran elephant in ETC WKNP as references in future breeding policy.

Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) was one of five big mammals in Way Kambas National Park (WKNP). Cytogenetic study was a part of conservation effort for sumatran elephant, especially in conservation genetic field. Captive sumatran elephant’s blood in Elephant Training Center (ETC) WKNP was collected to karyotype analysis. Captive sumatran elephant’s chromosome was analyzed by squashing technique with pretreating cells in a hypotonic solution. The study of karyotypes were made by giemsa staining applied to captive elephant’s blood cell. The diploid number of captive sumatran elephant was 56 both in male and female. The karyotype analysis performed different fundamental number in male and female, both of total fundamental number (FN) and autosomal fundamental number (FNa). Chromosome of female sumatran elephant showed the FN = 8, and FNa = 6, but in male sumatran elephant FN = 7, and FNa = . The karyotypes of X chromosome was large submetacentric and Y chromosome was small acrocentric.. The karyotype presented here will compilled with DNA fingerprinting analysis of all captive sumatran elephant in ETC WKNP as references in future breeding policy.

Although urban spaces are increasingly recognised as viable habitats for wildlife, cities remain a major source of anthropogenic mortality for wild birds. While the sources of urban avian mortalities have been well documented in North America, these phenomena remain poorly studied in Southeast Asia, especially for resident species. Here we present the first summary of non-migratory urban bird mortalities for the heavily urbanised island of Singapore. We conducted a citizen science study using print and social media outreach to encourage members of the public to report their observations of dead birds between November 2013 and October 2017, and collected a total of 362 mortality records across 65 resident bird species and five mortality sources. Our results show that a diverse array of bird species is directly impacted by anthropogenic sources of mortality, although mortalities stemming from roadkill and cat predation are likely to be undersampled. We also find that forest-edge frugivores such as the Pink-necked Green Pigeon are likely to be especially vulnerable to building collisions. Our study shows that despite its limitations, opportunistic sampling using citizen science can generate large amounts of ecological data at relatively low cost, and serve as a cost-effective complement to standardised survey methodologies.

Although urban spaces are increasingly recognised as viable habitats for wildlife, cities remain a major source of anthropogenic mortality for wild birds. While the sources of urban avian mortalities have been well documented in North America, these phenomena remain poorly studied in Southeast Asia, especially for resident species. Here we present the first summary of non-migratory urban bird mortalities for the heavily urbanised island of Singapore. We conducted a citizen science study using print and social media outreach to encourage members of the public to report their observations of dead birds between November 2013 and October 2017, and collected a total of 362 mortality records across 65 resident bird species and five mortality sources. Our results show that a diverse array of bird species is directly impacted by anthropogenic sources of mortality, although mortalities stemming from roadkill and cat predation are likely to be undersampled. We also find that forest-edge frugivores such as the Pink-necked Green Pigeon are likely to be especially vulnerable to building collisions. Our study shows that despite its limitations, opportunistic sampling using citizen science can generate large amounts of ecological data at relatively low cost, and serve as a cost-effective complement to standardised survey methodologies.

The study was conducted in the village Payangkalang Parangloe District of Gowa in South Sulawesi in 2017, with the field survey method Substance himself to Bali beef cattle breeders, through interviews and questionnaires to 18 farmers, by the way (sample random sampling). Respondents beef cattle breeders, classified into 2 (two) business model with a scale of 2 adult males and 3 females scale adult stem, this data will be analyzed using economic analysis of income B/C. Based on the information that the beef cattle population of Bali is quite a many, so that the criterion for consideration for the study area. Beside that all cattle breeders Bali is already a member of a group of farmers. The results showed that net profit in the maintenance of Bali beef cattle female parent of $13.381.250/year with B/C ratio of 1.2 and a gain on the maintenance of male cattle Bali for $ 3.881.250 year, with B/C ratio of 1.1. To maintain a profitable cattle faremr cows, while the majority of beef cattle Bali parent can still be maintained as an investment for the procreation of children next year.

The study was conducted in the village Payangkalang Parangloe District of Gowa in South Sulawesi in 2017, with the field survey method Substance himself to Bali beef cattle breeders, through interviews and questionnaires to 18 farmers, by the way (sample random sampling). Respondents beef cattle breeders, classified into 2 (two) business model with a scale of 2 adult males and 3 females scale adult stem, this data will be analyzed using economic analysis of income B/C. Based on the information that the beef cattle population of Bali is quite a many, so that the criterion for consideration for the study area. Beside that all cattle breeders Bali is already a member of a group of farmers. The results showed that net profit in the maintenance of Bali beef cattle female parent of $13.381.250/year with  B/C ratio of 1.2 and a gain on the maintenance of male cattle Bali for $ 3.881.250 year, with B/C ratio of 1.1. To maintain a profitable cattle faremr cows, while the majority of beef cattle Bali parent can still be maintained as an investment for the procreation of children next year.