Introduction: The aim of the study was to determine microbiota in the cloacal samples of European herring gulls (Larus argentatus) and to compare a variety of genes encoding antimicrobial resistance in cultivable and non-cultivable bacteria. Material and Methods: Cloacal samples from European herring gulls were collected from a Kaunas city dump. Cultivable microbiota were isolated, their microbial susceptibility was tested, and genes encoding antimicrobial resistance were detected. Additionally, a metagenomic study was performed using Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS). Results: In total, 697 different operational taxonomic units at genus level were detected; however, only 63 taxonomic units were detected at the amount of ≥0.1% of the total number of DNA copies. Catellicoccus marimammalium was found to have the highest prevalence. The bacterial amount of other genera was up to 5% with the most highly prevalent being Psychrobacter (4.7%), Helicobacter (4.5%), unclassified Enterococcaceae (3.2%), Pseudomonas (2.9%), and Brachyspira (2.6%). Conclusions: C. marimammalium are predominant microbiota in the cloacal samples of Larus argentatus. This species of gulls is a reservoir of bacteria carrying a wide-spectrum of genes encoding antimicrobial resistance. The same genes were detected in both cultivable microbiota and in the total DNA of the samples.

Introduction: The aim of the study was to determine microbiota in the cloacal samples of European herring gulls (Larus argentatus) and to compare a variety of genes encoding antimicrobial resistance in cultivable and non-cultivable bacteria.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a large, double-stranded DNA virus and the sole member of the Asfarviridae family. ASFV infects domestic pigs, wild boars, warthogs, and bush pigs, as well as soft ticks (Ornithodoros erraticus), which likely act as a vector. The major target is swine monocyte-macrophage cells. The virus can cause high fever, haemorrhagic lesions, cyanosis, anorexia, and even fatalities in domestic pigs. Currently, there is no vaccine and effective disease control strategies against its spread are culling infected pigs and maintaining high biosecurity standards. African swine fever (ASF) spread to Europe from Africa in the middle of the 20ᵗʰ century, and later also to South America and the Caribbean. Since then, ASF has spread more widely and thus is still a great challenge for swine breeding. The genome of ASFV ranges in length from about 170 to 193 kbp depending on the isolate and contains between 150 and 167 open reading frames (ORFs). The ASFV genome encodes 150 to 200 proteins, around 50 of them structural. The roles of virus structural proteins in viral infection have been described. These proteins, such as pp220, pp62, p72, p54, p30, and CD2v, serve as the major component of virus particles and have roles in attachment, entry, and replication. All studies on ASFV proteins lay a good foundation upon which to clarify the infection mechanism and develop vaccines and diagnosis methods. In this paper, the roles of ASFV structural proteins in viral infection are reviewed.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a large, double-stranded DNA virus and the sole member of the Asfarviridae family. ASFV infects domestic pigs, wild boars, warthogs, and bush pigs, as well as soft ticks (Ornithodoros erraticus), which likely act as a vector. The major target is swine monocyte-macrophage cells. The virus can cause high fever, haemorrhagic lesions, cyanosis, anorexia, and even fatalities in domestic pigs. Currently, there is no vaccine and effective disease control strategies against its spread are culling infected pigs and maintaining high biosecurity standards. African swine fever (ASF) spread to Europe from Africa in the middle of the 20th century, and later also to South America and the Caribbean. Since then, ASF has spread more widely and thus is still a great challenge for swine breeding. The genome of ASFV ranges in length from about 170 to 193 kbp depending on the isolate and contains between 150 and 167 open reading frames (ORFs). The ASFV genome encodes 150 to 200 proteins, around 50 of them structural. The roles of virus structural proteins in viral infection have been described. These proteins, such as pp220, pp62, p72, p54, p30, and CD2v, serve as the major component of virus particles and have roles in attachment, entry, and replication. All studies on ASFV proteins lay a good foundation upon which to clarify the infection mechanism and develop vaccines and diagnosis methods. In this paper, the roles of ASFV structural proteins in viral infection are reviewed.

Introduction: Aujeszky’s disease virus (ADV) infects a wide range of animals, including members of the Suidae family, i.e. domestic and wild pigs, as well as wild boar. Since wild boar are a potential ADV reservoir and a source of infection for domestic pigs, the aim of the study was to evaluate ADV antibody prevalence in the Polish wild boar population, during the years 2011 to 2014. Material and Methods: Wild boar blood samples were collected during three consecutive hunting seasons; i.e. 2011/2012, 2012/2013, and 2013/2014, and tested for ADV antibodies by ELISA. Results: ADV antibodies were detected in samples from all tested voivodships. The average seroprevalence reached 32.2%. Seroprevalence, over the examined hunting seasons, was 27.4% in 2011/2012, 32.4% in 2012/2013, and 35.5% in 2013/2014. The highest percentage of seroreagents was detected in four voivodships, situated along the western border of Poland, i.e. Zachodnio-Pomorskie (ZP), Lubuskie (LB), Dolnośląskie (DS), and Opolskie (OP). This area is positively correlated with the highest density of the wild boar population and the highest wild boar hunting bag. Conclusion: The results of this study confirm that the wild boar population may still pose a threat to domestic pigs, which is of special importance at the final stage of Aujeszky’s disease eradication programme in Poland.

Introduction: Aujeszky’s disease virus (ADV) infects a wide range of animals, including members of the Suidae family, i.e. domestic and wild pigs, as well as wild boar. Since wild boar are a potential ADV reservoir and a source of infection for domestic pigs, the aim of the study was to evaluate ADV antibody prevalence in the Polish wild boar population, during the years 2011 to 2014.

Introduction: The genomes of nine H5 subtypes of low pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAIV) strains identified in wild birds in Poland between 2010 and 2015 were sequenced, and their phylogenetic relationship was determined. Material and Methods: AIV genome segments were amplified by RT-PCR and the PCR products were sequenced using Sanger method. Phylogenetic trees were generated in MEGA6 software and digital genotyping approach was used to visualise the relationship between analysed strains and other AIVs. Results: High genetic diversity was found in the analysed strains as multiple subgroups were identified in phylogenetic trees. In the HA tree, Polish strains clustered in two distinct subclades. High diversity was found for PB2, PB1, PA and NP, since 5-8 sublineages could be distinguished. Each strain had a different gene constellation, although relationship of as much as six out of eight gene segments was observed between two isolates. A relationship with poultry isolates was found for at least one segment of each Polish strain. Conclusion: The genome configuration of tested strains indicates extensive reassortment, although the preference for specific gene constellation could be noticed. A significant relationship with isolates of poultry origin underlines the need for constant monitoring of the AIV gene pool circulating in the natural reservoir.

Introduction: The genomes of nine H5 subtypes of low pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAIV) strains identified in wild birds in Poland between 2010 and 2015 were sequenced, and their phylogenetic relationship was determined.

Introduction: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a highly resistant and difficult to cure zoonotic microorganism, which makes up a large part of food toxic infections and has shown high prevalence among pig population all over the world. The aim of the study was to establish the occurrence of MRSA in slaughterhouses, evaluate its antimicrobial resistance, and verify whether there are any differences or similarities with reference to other European countries. Material and Methods: A total of 100 pigs, 105 carcasses, 19 workers, and 24 samples from the environment of several slaughterhouses were examined by conventional microbial and molecular methods. Results: In total, 78 MRSA isolates were found. MRSA prevalence in slaughtered pigs varied from 8.0% to 88.6% depending on the slaughterhouse, reaching higher prevalence in slaughterhouses with higher slaughter capacity. In total, 21.1% of all workers were carriers of MRSA and 6.7% of carcasses were contaminated with MRSA. The 98.2% of MRSA isolates were resistant to penicillin, 89.1% to tetracycline, 60.1% to erythromycin, 65.5% to gentamycin, and 15 different spa types were found, among which spa type t01333 was most widespread. Conclusion: The study indicated that MRSA prevalence and spa types differed according to slaughterhouse slaughter capacity and good hygiene practices. Quite high MRSA occurrence among slaughterhouse workers is one of the main factors which increase pork contamination risk.

Introduction: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a highly resistant and difficult to cure zoonotic microorganism, which makes up a large part of food toxic infections and has shown high prevalence among pig population all over the world. The aim of the study was to establish the occurrence of MRSA in slaughterhouses, evaluate its antimicrobial resistance, and verify whether there are any differences or similarities with reference to other European countries. Material and Methods: A total of 100 pigs, 105 carcasses, 19 workers, and 24 samples from the environment of several slaughterhouses were examined by conventional microbial and molecular methods. Results: In total, 78 MRSA isolates were found. MRSA prevalence in slaughtered pigs varied from 8.0% to 88.6% depending on the slaughterhouse, reaching higher prevalence in slaughterhouses with higher slaughter capacity. In total, 21.1% of all workers were carriers of MRSA and 6.7% of carcasses were contaminated with MRSA. The 98.2% of MRSA isolates were resistant to penicillin, 89.1% to tetracycline, 60.1% to erythromycin, 65.5% to gentamycin, and 15 different spa types were found, among which spa type t01333 was most widespread. Conclusion: The study indicated that MRSA prevalence and spa types differed according to slaughterhouse slaughter capacity and good hygiene practices. Quite high MRSA occurrence among slaughterhouse workers is one of the main factors which increase pork contamination risk.

Introduction: The prevention and control of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae in commercial production settings is based on serological monitoring. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have been developed to detect specific antibodies against a variety of A. pleuropneumoniae antigens, including long-chain lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and the ApxIV toxin, a repeats-in-toxin (RTX) exotoxin unique to A. pleuropneumoniae and produced by all serovars. The objective of this study was to describe ApxIV antibody responses in serum and oral fluid of pigs.Material and Methods: Four groups of pigs (six pigs per group) were inoculated with A. pleuropneumoniae serovars 1, 5, 7, or 12. Weekly serum samples and daily oral fluid samples were collected from individual pigs for 56 days post inoculation (DPI) and tested by LPS and ApxIV ELISAs. The ApxIV ELISA was run in three formats to detect immunlgobulins M, G, and A (IgM, IgG and IgA) while the LPS ELISA detected only IgG.Results: All pigs inoculated with A. pleuropneumoniae serovars 1 and 7 were LPS ELISA serum antibody positive from DPI 14 to 56. A transient and weak LPS ELISA antibody response was observed in pigs inoculated with serovar 5 and a single antibody positive pig was observed in serovar 12 at ≥35 DPI. Notably, ApxIV serum and oral fluid antibody responses in pig inoculated with serovars 1 and 7 reflected the patterns observed for LPS antibody, albeit with a 14 to 21 day delay.Conclusion: This work suggests that ELISAs based on ApxIV antibody detection in oral fluid samples could be effective in population monitoring for A. pleuropneumoniae.

Introduction: The prevention and control of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae in commercial production settings is based on serological monitoring. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have been developed to detect specific antibodies against a variety of A. pleuropneumoniae antigens, including long-chain lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and the ApxIV toxin, a repeats-in-toxin (RTX) exotoxin unique to A. pleuropneumoniae and produced by all serovars. The objective of this study was to describe ApxIV antibody responses in serum and oral fluid of pigs.

Introduction: The main problem in determination of chloramphenicol in food of animal origin is a large number of matrices. The main target of this study was to create a method for determination and confirmation of chloramphenicol in products and food of animal origin. Material and Methods: Each 5 g matrix sample was mixed with 5 mL of water and 10 mL of acetonitrile/ethyl acetate, homogenised, and centrifuged. The organic layer was evaporated and redissolved in 6 mL of 4% NaCl. The extract was cleaned up by SPE technique. Chloramphenicol was analysed by LC-MS/MS in electrospray mode. Results: The procedure was validated according to the Commission Decision No. 2002/657/EC. The apparent recoveries were in the range of 92.1% to 107.1% with a repeatability less than 11.0% (4.4%-11.0%) and within-laboratory reproducibility below 13.6% (4.7%-13.6%). Conclusion: The method was successfully validated and proved to be efficient, precise, and useful for quantification of chloramphenicol in more than 20 different matrices.

Introduction: The main problem in determination of chloramphenicol in food of animal origin is a large number of matrices. The main target of this study was to create a method for determination and confirmation of chloramphenicol in products and food of animal origin. Material and Methods: Each 5 g matrix sample was mixed with 5 mL of water and 10 mL of acetonitrile/ethyl acetate, homogenised, and centrifuged. The organic layer was evaporated and redissolved in 6 mL of 4% NaCl. The extract was cleaned up by SPE technique. Chloramphenicol was analysed by LC-MS/MS in electrospray mode. Results: The procedure was validated according to the Commission Decision No. 2002/657/EC. The apparent recoveries were in the range of 92.1% to 107.1% with a repeatability less than 11.0% (4.4%-11.0%) and within-laboratory reproducibility below 13.6% (4.7%-13.6%). Conclusion: The method was successfully validated and proved to be efficient, precise, and useful for quantification of chloramphenicol in more than 20 different matrices.

Over the last years a growing demand for ratite meat, including ostrich, emu, and rhea has been observed in the world. Ratite meat is recognised as a dietetic product because of low level of fat, high share of PUFA, favourable n6/n3 ratio, and higher amounts of iron content in comparison with beef and chicken meat. The abundance of bioactive compounds, e.g. PUFA, makes ratite meat highly susceptible to oxidation processes. Moreover, pH over 6 creates favourable environment for fast microbial growth during storage conditions affecting its shelf life. However, availability of information on ratite meat shelf life among consumers and industry is still limited. Thus, the aim of the present review is to provide current information about the effect of ratite meat packaging type, i.e. air packaging, vacuum packaging with skin pack, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), on its shelf life quality during storage, including technological and nutritional properties.

Over the last years a growing demand for ratite meat, including ostrich, emu, and rhea has been observed in the world. Ratite meat is recognised as a dietetic product because of low level of fat, high share of PUFA, favourable n6/n3 ratio, and higher amounts of iron content in comparison with beef and chicken meat. The abundance of bioactive compounds, e.g. PUFA, makes ratite meat highly susceptible to oxidation processes. Moreover, pH over 6 creates favourable environment for fast microbial growth during storage conditions affecting its shelf life. However, availability of information on ratite meat shelf life among consumers and industry is still limited. Thus, the aim of the present review is to provide current information about the effect of ratite meat packaging type, i.e. air packaging, vacuum packaging with skin pack, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), on its shelf life quality during storage, including technological and nutritional properties.