This study investigates trace element concentrations (arsenic (As), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn)) and Pb isotopic compositions in an Australian native bee species, Tetragonula carbonaria, and its products of honey and wax. Co-located soil and dust samples were simultaneously analysed with the objective of determining if the bees or their products had potential application as a proxy for monitoring environmental contamination. The most significant relationships were found between Pb concentrations in honey (r = 0.814, p = 0.014) and wax (r = 0.883, p = 0.004) and those in co-located dust samples. In addition, Zn concentrations in honey and soil were significantly associated (r = 0.709, p = 0.049). Lead isotopic compositions of native bee products collected from background sites adjacent to Sydney national parks (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 1.144, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 2.437) corresponded to local geogenic rock and soil values (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 1.123–1.176, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 2.413–2.500). By contrast, inner Sydney metropolitan samples, including native bees and wax (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 1.072–1.121, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 2.348–2.409), co-located soil and dust (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 1.090–1.122, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 2.368–2.403), corresponded most closely to aerosols collected during the period of leaded petrol use (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 1.067–1.148, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁷Pb = 2.341–2.410). A large range of Pb isotopic compositions in beehive samples suggests that other legacy sources, such as Pb-based paints and industrials, may have also contributed to Pb contamination in beehive samples. Native bee data were compared to corresponding samples from the more common European honey bee (Apis mellifera). Although Pb isotopic compositions were similar in both species, significant differences in trace element concentrations were evident across the trace element suite, the bees and their products. The statistical association between T. carbonaria and co-located environmental contaminant concentrations were stronger than those in European honey bees, which may be attributable to its smaller foraging distance (0.3–0.7 km versus 5–9 km, respectively). This implies that T. carbonaria may be more suitable for assessing small spatial scale variations of trace element concentrations than European honey bees.

Loss of suitable seminatural habitats and homogenization of crop types have led to the population decline of pollinating insects in farmland. As these insects support crop production, many practical efforts aim to sustain pollinator diversity which is especially challenging in intensively managed and homogeneous farmland. However, there are ongoing changes of the farmland toward its multifunctionality that includes, for example, wind farm development. Windmills are often built within crops; thus, we examined if the noncropped area around windmills can be valuable habitats for wild plants and pollinating insects: bees, butterflies, and flies. Species richness, abundances, and species diversity index of plants and pollinators around windmills were similar to those found in grassland patches (a typical habitat for these insects) and higher than in the adjacent crops. Pollinator diversity index and species richness at windmills increased with the distance to the nearest grassland patch and windmill. The population sizes of pollinating insects were also positively associated with plant diversity. Particular groups of pollinators showed specific habitat associations: bees occurred mostly at windmills, butterflies were highly associated with grasslands, while flies occurred in a similar number at windmill and on grasslands. Since windmills are frequently built within extensive homogeneous fields, thus, they introduce pollination services into the interior of cropped areas, contrary to field margins, road verges, or seminatural grasslands. Thus, although the development of wind farms has various negative environmental consequences, they can be alleviated by the increase of the local population size and diversity of wild plants and pollinating insects at windmills.

Honey has multifaceted beneficial properties, but polluted environment and unapproved apicultural practices have led to its contamination. In this study, QuEChERS method followed by chromatographic analysis by GC-μECD/FTD and GC-MS was validated and used for determination of 24 pesticides in 100 raw honey samples from various floral origins of Northern India. Matrix-matched calibrations showed that the method was selective and linear (r² > 0.99) with detection limit < 9.1 ng g⁻¹ for all the studied pesticides except for monocrotophos (21.3 ng g⁻¹). The average recoveries at different fortification levels ranged from 86.0 to 107.7% with relative standard deviation < 20%. Pesticide residues were detected in 19.0% samples, and most prevalent compounds detected were dichlorvos in 6.0% samples followed by monocrotophos (5.0%), profenofos (5.0%), permethrin (4.0%), ethion (3.0%), and lindane (3.0%) with concentrations ranging from 58.8 to 225.5, from 96.0 to 430.1, from 14.6 to 43.2, from 27.8 to 39.6, from 25.6 to 28.0, and from 19.6 to 99.2 ng g⁻¹, respectively. Honey samples originating from cotton, sunflower, and mustard crops (33.3%) that tested positive for pesticide residues were found to be significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the honey originating from natural and fruity vegetation (13.5%). Therefore, considering the contamination of environmental compartments due to extensive application of pesticides in the study area and their potential for subsequent transfer to honey by the expeditious bees, the results of present study proclaim that honey may be used as an indicator of environmental pollution. Further, estimated daily intakes of all contaminants were found to be at levels well below their acceptable daily intakes suggesting that consumption of honeys at current levels does not pose deleterious effects on human health. However, precautionary measures should always be taken considering the customary honey feeding in infants and cumulative effect of these chemicals in the foreseeable future.

The concentration of certain heavy metals in various foods (fruits, cereals, legumes, and bee products) produced in industrial and urban cities is increasing each year following industrial development. Quality of honey and its contamination by different polluting agents are related essentially to its production environment, or it can arise from beekeeping practices. In the present study, the determination of physicochemical properties: moisture, pH, total acidity, electric conductivity, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), sugars, and chloramphenicol (CAP) residues; the metal content by determination of two toxic metals levels: lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd); and other trace elements: magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni) in 23 different honey samples collected from North regions of Algeria were investigated. The physicochemical properties and the metal contents were found within the ranges established by the international standards. For the antibiotic residues, only four honey samples are contaminated by CAP. Metals were found in non-significant values and are in safety baseline levels for human consumption except Mg which exceed the limits. These results suggested that honey could be used as an indicator to detect contaminating agents from the environment since bees are excellent sentinels for assessing environmental contamination because of their physiological and biological characteristics.