The Deception Island, located in Maritime Antarctica, is a volcanic island with geothermal activity and one of the most visited by tourists. However, the extent of the anthropogenic impact remains largely unknown and the factors shaping the resistance/tolerance mechanisms in the microbiomes from Whalers Bay ecosystems have never been investigated. In this context, this study aimed to reveal the resistome profiles of Whalers Bay sediments and correlate them with environmental factors. Samples were collected at four sites during the summer 2014/2015 along a transect of 27.5 m in the Whalers Bay sediments. DNA isolated from sediment samples was sequenced using the Illumina HiSeq platform. Bioinformatic analyses allowed the assembly of contigs and scaffolds, prediction of ORFs, and taxonomic and functional annotation using NCBI RefSeq database and KEGG orthology, respectively. Microorganisms belonging to the genera Psychrobacter, Flavobacterium and Polaromonas were shown to dominate all sites, representing 60% of taxonomic annotation. Arsenic (As), copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) were the most abundant metal resistance/tolerance types found in the microbiomes. Beta-lactam was the most common class related to antibiotics resistance/tolerance, corroborating with previous environmental resistome studies. The acridine class was the most abundant amongst the biocide resistance/tolerances, related to antiseptic compounds. Results gathered in this study reveal a repertoire of resistance/tolerance classes to antibiotics and biocides unusually found in Antarctica. However, given the volcanic nature (heavy metals-rich region) of Deception Island soils, this putative impact must be viewed with caution.

Tributyltin (TBT) is an organotin environmental pollutant widely used as an agricultural and wood biocide and in antifouling paints. Countries began restricting TBT use in the 2000s, but their use continues in some agroindustrial processes. We studied the acute effect of TBT on cardiac function by analyzing myocardial contractility and Ca²⁺ handling. Cardiac contractility was evaluated in isolated papillary muscle and whole heart upon TBT exposure. Isolated ventricular myocytes were used to measure calcium (Ca²⁺) transients, sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca²⁺ content and SR Ca²⁺ leak (as Ca²⁺ sparks). Reactive oxygen species (ROS), as superoxide anion (O2•⁻) was detected at intracellular and mitochondrial myocardium. TBT depressed cardiac contractility and relaxation in papillary muscle and intact whole heart. TBT increased cytosolic, mitochondrial ROS production and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential. In isolated cardiomyocytes TBT decreased both Ca²⁺ transients and SR Ca²⁺ content and increased diastolic SR Ca²⁺ leak. Decay of twitch and caffeine-induced Ca²⁺ transients were slowed by the presence of TBT. Dantrolene prevented and Tiron limited the reduction in SR Ca²⁺ content and transients. The environmental contaminant TBT causes cardiotoxicity within minutes, and may be considered hazardous to the mammalian heart. TBT acutely induced a negative inotropic effect in isolated papillary muscle and whole heart, increased arrhythmogenic SR Ca²⁺ leak leading to reduced SR Ca²⁺ content and reduced Ca²⁺ transients. TBT-induced myocardial ROS production, may destabilize the SR Ca²⁺ release channel RyR2 and reduce SR Ca²⁺ pump activity as key factors in the TBT-induced negative inotropic and lusitropic effects.

The persistence and toxicity of second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) in animal tissues make these compounds dangerous by biomagnification in predatory species. Here we studied the levels of SGARs in non-target species of wildlife and the environmental factors that influence such exposure. Liver samples of terrestrial vertebrates (n = 244) found dead between 2007 and 2016 in the region of Aragón (NE Spain) were analysed. The presence of SGARs was statistically analysed with binary or ordinal logistic models to study the effect of habitat characteristics including human population density, percentage of urban surface, livestock densities and surface of different types of crops. SGARs residues were detected in 83 (34%) of the animals and levels >200 ng/g were found in common raven (67%), red fox (50%), red kite (38%), Eurasian eagle-owl (25%), stone marten (23%), Eurasian buzzard (17%), northern marsh harrier (17%), and Eurasian badger (14%). The spatial analysis revealed that the presence of SGARs residues in wildlife was more associated with the use of these products as biocides in urban areas and cattle farms rather than as plant protection products in agricultural fields. This information permits to identify potential habitats where SGARs may pose a risk for predatory birds and mammals.

Antifouling booster biocides are chemicals used in protective paints to tackle the adhesion of fouling organisms to maritime artificial structures. However, they are also known to exert toxic effects on non-target organisms. Recent research developments have highlighted the potential use of engineered micro/nanomaterials (EMNMs) as carriers of antifouling booster biocides in order to control their release and to reduce the harmful effects on living biota. In the present study, we sought to assess the toxicity of two commercially-available booster biocides: (zinc pyrithione (ZnPT) and copper pyrithione (CuPT)); three unloaded engineered micro/nanomaterials (EMNMs); layered double hydroxides (LDH), silica nanocapsules (SiNC), polyurea microcapsules (PU); , and six novel EMNMs (loaded with each of the two biocides). The exposure tests were conducted on the larval stage (nauplii) of the brine shrimp Artemia salina and on two embryonic developmental stages of the European purple sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. The findings indicate that the unloaded LDH and PU (i.e. both biocide-free EMNMs) have non/low toxic effects on both species. The unloaded SiNC, in contrast, exerted a mild toxic effect on the A. salina nauplii and P. lividus embryos. The free biocides presented different toxicity values, with ZnPT being more toxic than CuPT in the P. lividus assays. LDH-based pyrithiones demonstrated lower toxicity compared to the free forms of the state-of-the-art compounds, and constitute good candidates in terms of their antifouling efficacy.

Fouling organisms fix and grow on submerged surfaces and may cause several economic losses. Thus, antifouling biocides have been introduced in antifouling paints in order to avoid this phenomenon. However, their widespread use became a global problem, since these substances can be highly toxic to non-target organisms, mainly in high boat traffic areas. The occurrence and environmental behavior of antifouling biocides are especially unknown in areas of ecological relevance, as Amazonian and pre-Amazonian regions. Thus, the aim of this work was to evaluate, for the first time, levels and the partitioning behavior of the antifouling organic biocides irgarol, diuron and also stable degradation products of dichlofluanid and diuron (DMSA and DCPMU, respectively) in sediments and porewaters from a high boat traffic area located in the Northeast of Brazil. Our results showed high concentrations of irgarol and diuron in sediments, and their contamination patterns suggested that misuse and discard of antifouling residues contribute for a serious risk in this environment. Additionally, DCPMU and DMSA were detected for the first time in porewaters of the Brazilian coast. This work represents one of the few registers of contamination, especially by antifouling substances, in Amazonian areas, despite their environmental relevance.

Antifouling coatings are used to protect boat hulls from fouling organisms. The paints are designed to release biocides and by this prevent fouling organisms to attach. Until now the simultaneous release of the bulk plastic material has been over-looked. In this study the amount of antifouling paints on ships and leisure boats in Scandinavian countries and Germany has been compared and a calculation of the release of micro plastics has been performed. The result shows that use of a biocide-free hard coating will completely reduce outlet of biocides and the input of polymers will dramatically be reduced from at the most 5% in comparison to traditional paints where the release rate of plastics is estimated to be 70–85%. The advantage for the boat owners will be large since the hard maintenance work will be reduced, release of micro plastics will be low and thus lead to an improved environment.

Hull fouling has been a driving force behind the development of most modern marine antifouling coatings that mainly contain copper based biocides to inhibit growth of fouling organisms. Despite these efforts, several non-indigenous species continue to be transferred via hull-fouling worldwide. In this study we designed a disturbance gradient with three commercial antifouling paints applied to PVC settling plates with different concentrations of copper oxide and allowed colonization of fouling communities in four marinas located at the Madeira Archipelago (NE Atlantic). Overall, the antifouling treatments were effective in decreasing the diversity of fouling communities and spatial variability across marinas was observed. Increasing exposure to metal pollutants decreases both species cover and total diversity, independently of their native or NIS condition. However, evidences found suggest that long-term effects of copper based antifouling coatings can be modulated by metal-resistant species allowing a secondary substrate for the epibiosis of other species to establish.

In this study, we screened for the antifouling activity of 15 species plant extracts from Brazilian the Brazilian Caatinga Fabaceae against the initial colonization of natural marine bacterial biofilm. We also investigated the potential toxicity of extracts against planktonic and benthic non-target organisms. Aqueous extracts of plants collected in the Caatinga biome (PE, Brazil) were prepared and tested at different concentration levels (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 mg mL⁻¹). Natural marine bacterial consortium was inoculated in multi-well plates and incubated with the different treatments for 48 h. The biofilm and planktonic bacterial density and biomass inhibition were evaluated along with biofilm biomass eradication. The extracts that showed the highest bacterial biofilm inhibition were evaluated for toxicity against microalgae and crustaceans. The biofilm and planktonic bacterial inhibition potential were evaluated through flow cytometry and spectrophotometry. The selected treatments were evaluated for their toxicity using the microalgae Chaetoceros calcitrans, the copepod Nitokra sp., and the brine shrimp Artemia salina as bioindicators. Our work demonstrates the biotechnological potential of Fabaceae plant compounds as a safe antifouling alternative. Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil fruits and Apuleia leiocarpa leaf extracts showed antibiofilm activity (≥ 80%), while Myroxylon peruiferum and Dioclea grandiflora leaf extracts showed antibiotic activity. These extracts were safe to planktonic and benthic non-target organisms. The results of this study point to potential substitutes to highly toxic antifouling paints and shed light on the prospect of a yet to be explored biome for more sustainable alternatives in biofouling research.

This study focused on the presence of three biocidal products specific to healthcare facilities, i.e. chlorhexidine digluconate (CHD), bis(aminopropyl)laurylamine (BAPLA), and didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC), in a hospital sewage system. Five sampling campaigns were conducted in 2016 and 2017 throughout the entire Poitiers University Hospital sewage system. DDAC concentrations ranging from 933 ± 119 to 3250 ± 482 μg/L were detected in 24-h composite samples, while lower concentrations (both within the same range) were detected for the two other compounds (i.e. 25 ± 5 to 97 ± 39 μg/L for CHD and 18 ± 3 to 142 ± 16 μg/L for BAPLA). Based on these findings, a mass balance was determined for these discharged compounds to compare the quantities detected in discharges to the amounts used for healthcare in the hospital. Hence, 60–90% of the quantities of DDAC used were found to be present at the hospital sewage outfall. Higher percentages of CHD (100–242%) were noted because of the high presumably quantities used for antiseptic applications, which were not considered in mass balance calculation. Finally, only 10–30% of BAPLA quantities used were detected at the site outfall. Analysis of the results for the different sampling points revealed the nature of the emission sources. For surface applications of DDAC and BAPLA, management of hospital linen is thus a major source of discharged biocidal products, probably following the washing of biocide-soaked textiles used for hospital facility maintenance. Moreover, discharge of biocidal products from a healthcare establishment depends especially on biocide handling practices in the emitting establishment. For BAPLA, compliance with hospital recommended dosages and practices whereby operators are required to prepare tailored quantities of detergents and disinfectants for each specific task could largely explain the limited release of this compound.

Since the ban of tributyltin in antifouling paints, many alternative biocides have been introduced to prevent settlement and growth of marine organisms on ship hulls. Zinc pyrithione (ZnPT) is one of the most frequently used alternative biocides in antifouling paints. This paper reviewed the overall chemical properties, toxicological characteristics, and environmental fates of ZnPT, as well as the analytical challenges of studying pertinent processes. ZnPT is generally toxic to a wide range of marine organisms, including algae, bivalves, sea urchins, polychaetes, crustaceans, and fish, typically at μg/L levels. ZnPT can be transchelated into other compounds in the presence of metal ions, and photodegrades when exposed to UV light. ZnPT is also reported to be biodegraded or hydrolyzed forming several metabolites of their own toxicity and stability. However, ZnPT accumulates in the water column or sediment, if it does not degrade at certain environmental conditions. To determine potential risks caused by ZnPT in the marine environment, studies have evaluated the environmental distribution of ZnPT with various chromatographic or voltammetry methods. Unfortunately, rapid transchelation and degradation of ZnPT in both the marine environment and laboratory interfered with most of the methods employed, making it difficult to evaluate its environmental distribution. More robust and sensitive analytical methods need to be developed to reliably describe the environmental release and distribution of ZnPT. To comprehensively understand the risk posed by the input of ZnPT into the marine environment, total degradation processes and its potential products also need to be adequately addressed.