The combined effects of emerging pollutants and ocean acidification (OA) on marine organisms and marine ecosystems have attracted increasing attention. However, the combined effects of tralopyril and OA on marine organisms and marine ecosystems remain unclear. In this study, Crassostrea gigas (C. gigas) were exposed to tralopyril (1 μg/L) and/or OA (PH = 7.7) for 21 days and a 14-day recovery acclimation. To investigate the stress response and potential molecular mechanisms of C. gigas to OA and tralopyril exposure alone or in combination, as well as the effects of OA and/or tralopyril on bivalve biomineralization and marine carbon cycling. The results showed that the combined toxicity was between that of acidification and tralopyril alone. Single or combined exposure activated the general stress defense responses of C. gigas mantle, affected energy metabolism and biomineralization of the organism and the carbon cycle of the marine ecosystem. Moreover, acidification-induced and tralopyril-induced toxicity showed potential recoverability at molecular and biochemical levels. This study provides a new perspective on the molecular mechanisms of tralopyril toxicity to bivalve shellfish and reveals the potential role of tralopyril and OA on marine carbon cycling.

This study focused on the impacts of aged aquaculture microplastics (MPs) on oysters (Crassostrea gigas). Adult oysters were exposed for two months to a cocktail of MPs representative of the contamination of the Pertuis Charentais area (Bay of Biscay, France) and issuing from oyster framing material. The MPs mixture included 28% of polyethylene, 40% of polypropylene and 32% of PVC (polyvinyl chloride). During the exposure, tissues were sampled for various analyzes (MP quantification, toxicity biomarkers). Although no effect on the growth of adult oysters was noted, the mortality rate of bivalves exposed to MPs (0.1 and 10 mg. L⁻¹ MP) increased significantly (respectively 13.3 and 23.3% of mortalities cumulative). On the one hand, the responses of biomarkers revealed impacts on oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and environmental stress. At 56 days of exposure, significant increases were noted for Glutathione S-Transferase (GST, 10 mg. L⁻¹ MP), Malondialdehyde (MDA, 10 mg. L⁻¹ MP) and Laccase (LAC, 0.1 and 10 mg. L⁻¹ MP). No variations were observed for Superoxyde Dismutase (SOD). Besides, ingestion of MPs in oyster tissues and the presence in biodeposits was highlighted. In addition, in vitro fertilisations were performed to characterize MPs effects on the offspring. Swimming behavior, development and growth of D-larvae were analysed at 24-, 48- and 72-h after fertilisation. D-larvae, from exposed parents, demonstrated reduced locomotor activity. Developmental abnormalities and arrest as well as growth retardation were also noted. This study highlighted direct and intergenerational effects of MPs from aged plastic materials on Pacific oysters.

Microplastics debris (<5 mm) are increasingly abundant in the marine environment, therefore, potentially becoming a growing threat for different marine organisms. Through aquatic animals, these can enter in the human food chain, and can be perceived as a risk for consumers’ health.Different studies report the presence of particles in marketable shellfish including the world wide commercially grown Pacific oyster Magallana gigas (Thunberg, 1793). The aim of this study is to examine the potential risk of microplastics entering in the human food chain through this shellfish species, investigating the dynamics of the uptake, egestion (faeces) and rejection (pseudofaeces) of microplastics in Pacific oysters under controlled conditions.M. gigas collected from a farm in the San Teodoro lagoon (Italy), were exposed to 60 fluorescent orange polystyrene particles L⁻¹ of known sizes (100, 250 and 500 μm). The uptake of each particle size was 19.4 ± 1.1%, 19.4 ± 2% and 12.9 ± 2% respectively. After exposure M. gigas were left to depurate for 72 h, during which 84.6 ± 2% of the particles taken up were released whilst 15.4 ± 2% were retained inside the shell cavity. No microplastic particles were found in the animals’ soft tissues.The results of this study, suggest that depuration is an effective method to reduce presence of large microplastic particles, in the size range 100–500 μm, in M. gigas. Importantly, the data suggests that the burden that could theoretically be up taken by consumers from these shellfish is negligible when compared to other routes.

Microplastics are present throughout the marine environment and ingestion of these plastic particles (<1 mm) has been demonstrated in a laboratory setting for a wide array of marine organisms. Here, we investigate the presence of microplastics in two species of commercially grown bivalves: Mytilus edulis and Crassostrea gigas. Microplastics were recovered from the soft tissues of both species. At time of human consumption, M. edulis contains on average 0.36 ± 0.07 particles g−1 (wet weight), while a plastic load of 0.47 ± 0.16 particles g−1 ww was detected in C. gigas. As a result, the annual dietary exposure for European shellfish consumers can amount to 11,000 microplastics per year. The presence of marine microplastics in seafood could pose a threat to food safety, however, due to the complexity of estimating microplastic toxicity, estimations of the potential risks for human health posed by microplastics in food stuffs is not (yet) possible.

Microplastics (MPs) are widely found in coastal areas and oceans worldwide. The MPs are environmentally concerning due to their bioavailability and potential impacts on a wide range of marine biota, so assessing their impact on the biota has become an urgent research priority. In the present study, we exposed Crassostrea gigas oysters to irregular MPs of two polymer types (polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET)) at concentrations of 10 and 1000 μg L⁻¹ for 21 days. Accumulation of MPs, changes in metabolic enzyme activity, and histological damage were evaluated, and metabolomics analysis was conducted. Results demonstrated that PE and PET MPs were detected in the gills and digestive gland following exposure to both tested concentrations, confirming ingestion of MPs by the organisms. Moreover, both PE and PET MPs inhibited lipid metabolism, while energy metabolism enzyme activities were activated in the oysters. Histopathological damage of exposed oysters was also observed in this study. Integrated biomarker response (IBR) results showed that MPs toxicity increased with increasing MPs concentration, and the toxic effects of PET MPs on oysters was greater than PE MPs. In addition, metabolomics analysis suggested that MPs exposure induced alterations in metabolic profiles in oysters, with changes in energy metabolism and inflammatory responses. This study reports new insights into the consequences of MPs exposure in marine bivalves at environmentally relevant concentrations, providing valuable information for ecological risk assessment of MPs in a realistic conditions.

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) of toxic species of the dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis are a threat to human health as they are mainly responsible for diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in the consumers of contaminated shellfish. Such contamination leads to shellfish farm closures causing major economic and social issues. The direct effects of numerous HAB species have been demonstrated on adult bivalves, whereas the effects on critical early life stages remain relatively unexplored. The present study aimed to determine the in vitro effects of either cultivated strains of D. sacculus and D. acuminata isolated from France or their associated toxins (i.e. okadaic acid (OA) and pectenotoxin 2 (PTX2)) on the quality of the gametes of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. This was performed by assessing the ROS production and viability of the gametes using flow cytometry, and fertilization success using microscopic counts. Oocytes were more affected than spermatozoa and their mortality and ROS production increased in the presence of D. sacculus and PTX2, respectively. A decrease in fertilization success was observed at concentrations as low as 0.5 cell mL⁻¹ of Dinophysis spp. and 5 nM of PTX2, whereas no effect of OA could be observed. The effect on fertilization success was higher when both gamete types were concomitantly exposed compared to separate exposures, suggesting a synergistic effect. Our results also suggest that the effects could be due to cell-to-cell contact. These results highlight a potential effect of Dinophysis spp. and PTX2 on reproduction and recruitment of the Pacific oyster.

Diet is an important route of mercury (Hg) uptake in marine organisms. Trophic transfer of Hg throughout the food webs may be influenced by various factors, including diet and Hg speciation. Bivalves such as oysters are widely used as bioindicators of trace element pollution such as Hg. Nevertheless, our current knowledge regarding their ability to accumulate Hg from their diet is mainly based on experiments performed using phytoplankton. In their natural environment, oysters feed on a variety of food items including ciliates, detritus, in addition to phytoplankton. The present study aimed at examining the influence of diet composition on the trophic transfer of inorganic Hg (iHg) and methylmercury (MeHg) in the Pacific cupped oyster Crassostrea gigas. The pulse-chase feeding method was used with two radiolabeled food items: a heterotrophic protist (Uronema marinum) and a phytoplanktonic diatom (Thalassiosira pseudonana). Depuration of dietary Hg in the oysters was followed for 50 d. Kinetic parameters including assimilation efficiency (AE) and efflux rate constant (kₑ) were calculated. Our results showed that oysters fed on ciliates assimilated 96 ± 1% and 31 ± 2% of the ingested MeHg and iHg, respectively whereas these elements were similarly assimilated in the oysters fed on phytoplankton (78 ± 3% and 86 ± 4% for MeHg and iHg, respectively). Mercury assimilation in oyster is thus diet dependent (significant differences in AE, p < 0.05), metal species-dependent and likely resulting from variations in Hg bioavailability in the two food items tested and a gut passage time-dependent of the ingested matrix.

Harmful algal blooms are a threat to aquatic organisms and coastal ecosystems. Among harmful species, the widespread distributed genus Alexandrium is of global importance. This genus is well-known for the synthesis of paralytic shellfish toxins which are toxic for humans through the consumption of contaminated shellfish. While the effects of Alexandrium species upon the physiology of bivalves are now well documented, consequences on reproduction remain poorly studied. In France, Alexandrium minutum blooms have been recurrent for the last decades, generally appearing during the reproduction season of most bivalves including the oyster Crassostrea gigas. These blooms could not only affect gametogenesis but also spawning, larval development or juvenile recruitment. This study assesses the effect of toxic A. minutum blooms on C. gigas reproduction. Adult oysters were experimentally exposed to A. minutum, at environmentally realistic concentrations (10² to 10³ cells mL⁻¹) for two months during their gametogenesis and a control group, not exposed to A. minutum was fed with a non-toxic dinoflagellate. To determine both consequences to next generation and direct effects of A. minutum exposure on larvae, the embryo-larval development of subsequent offspring was conducted with and without A. minutum exposure at 10² cells mL⁻¹. Effects at each stage of the reproduction were investigated on ecophysiological parameters, cellular responses, and offspring development. Broodstock exposed to A. minutum produced spermatozoa with decreased motility and larvae of smaller size which showed higher mortalities during settlement. Embryo-larval exposure to A. minutum significantly reduced growth and settlement of larvae compared to non-exposed offspring. This detrimental consequence on larval growth was stronger in larvae derived from control parents compared to offspring from exposed parents. This study provides evidence that A. minutum blooms, whether they occur during gametogenesis, spawning or larval development, can either affect gamete quality and/or larval development of C. gigas, thus potentially impacting oyster recruitment.

In the marine environment, most bivalve species base their reproduction on external fertilization. Hence, gametes and young stages face many threats, including exposure to plastic wastes which represent more than 80% of the debris in the oceans. Recently, evidence has been produced on the presence of nanoplastics in oceans, thus motivating new studies of their impacts on marine life. Because no information is available about their environmental concentrations, we performed dose-response exposure experiments with polystyrene particles to assess the extent of micro/nanoplastic toxicity. Effects of polystyrene with different sizes and functionalizations (plain 2-μm, 500-nm and 50-nm; COOH-50 nm and NH₂-50 nm) were assessed on three key reproductive steps (fertilization, embryogenesis and metamorphosis) of Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas). Nanoplastics induced a significant decrease in fertilization success and in embryo-larval development with numerous malformations up to total developmental arrest. The NH₂-50 beads had the strongest toxicity to both gametes (EC₅₀ = 4.9 μg/mL) and embryos (EC₅₀ = 0.15 μg/mL), showing functionalization-dependent toxicity. No effects of plain microplastics were recorded. These results highlight that exposures to nanoplastics may have deleterious effects on planktonic stages of oysters, presumably interacting with biological membranes and causing cyto/genotoxicity with potentially drastic consequences for their reproductive success.

Information regarding chemical pollutant levels in farmed fish and shellfish, along with the risks associated with their consumption is still scarce. This study was designed to assess levels of exposure to 21 trace elements in fish (Dicentrarchus labrax), mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and oysters (Crassostrea gigas) collected from aquaculture marine ecosystems of the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Metal concentrations showed great variability in the three species; the highest values of the nonessential elements As and Cd were found in oysters while the highest levels of Al, Pb and V were found in mussels. The essential elements Cu, Mn and Zn were highest in oysters, but Fe, Cr, Ni, Se, Co and Mo levels were highest in mussels. Fish had the lowest concentrations for all trace elements, which were at least one order of magnitude lower than in bivalves. The rare earth elements cerium and lanthanum were found at higher levels in mussels than in oysters, but undetectable in fish. The maximum values set by European regulations for Hg, Cd and Pb were never exceeded in the examined samples. However, comparing the estimated human daily intakes (EHDIs) with the suggested tolerable copper and zinc intakes suggested a potential risk for frequent consumers of oysters. Similarly, people who consume high quantities of mussels could be exposed to concentrations of Al that exceed the proposed TWI (tolerable weekly intake).