From a health prospective, it is critical to provide a comprehensive model which integrates all the parameters involved in virus transmission and its consequences on human body. In order to estimate the health risks, for workers and residents, associated with an exposure airborne viruses emitted from a wastewater treatment (WWTP), the concentration levels of viruses in emitted bioaerosols over a twelve-month period were measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). A combined Gaussian plum dispersion model and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) with Monte-Carlo simulation served as suitable explanatory tools to estimate the risk of acquiring gastrointestinal illness (GI) due to exposure to air containing Rotavirus (RoV) and Norovirus (NoV) bioaerosols. Additionally, DALY metric was applied to quantify the disability and mortality for workers and residents. RoV and NoV were detected above aeration tank with annual mean concentration 27 and 3099 (Viruses/m³.h), respectively. The medium calculated DALY indicator based on viral loads in contaminant source (RoV:5.76 × 10⁻² and NoV:1.23 × 10⁻¹) and estimated in different distances away (300–1000 m) (RoV:2.87 × 10⁻²- 2.75 × 10⁻² and NoV:1.14 × 10⁻¹-1.13 × 10⁻¹) were markedly higher than the threshold values recommended by US EPA (10⁻⁴ DALY pppy) and WHO (10⁻⁶ DALY pppy). The sensitivity analysis highlighted dose exposure and disease burden per case (DBPC) as two most influential factors for both workers and residents following exposure to two pathogens of concern. Due to high resistance and high concentration in the environment, the presence of RoV and NoV can intensify the consequences of diarrhea especially for children under five years of age; A comprehensible and transparent presentation of DALYs and QMRA can help decision makers and responsibilities to justify the priorities of exposure to wastewater in comparison with other risks of daily life.

A total of 120 samples comprising of water (45), sediment (45) and mangrove originated food (30) collected from mangrove ecosystems of Goa were screened for Escherichia coli employing ISO-16654 method. Seventy-one (59.16%) samples were positive for E. coli. The E. coli isolates were further characterized by serotyping, virulence gene profiling and pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Water and sediment samples were analyzed for physico-chemical parameters. The serotypes reported were O1, O10, O13, O17, O36, O41, O50, O68, O105, O116, O141, O148, O159, O162 and rough types while, 23 strains could not be typed. The stx1 and stx2 genes were detected in 33(46.47%) and 16(22.53%) isolates, respectively. The XbaI restriction digestion patterns of the stx positive strains were diverse. Interestingly, few strains isolated from diarrheal patients and from water, sediment and food from mangrove sources were genetically similar. The study showed that the mangrove ecosystem could be a potential reservoir for pathogenic E. coli.

Rotavirus A is the most common cause of infectious diarrhea worldwide. This study aimed to retrospectively study and analyze 4009 stool samples that were tested for viruses causing diarrhea, using multiplex reverse transcription PCR at Dankook University Hospital between 2010 and 2019. Furthermore, we determined the correlation between these factors and various climatic factors, including wind-chill temperature, relative humidity, rate of sunshine, and particulate matter. Rotavirus A infections occurred frequently in February, March, and April on an annual basis. Furthermore, during the study, the detection rate was highest at 17.0% (n=61/359) in 2011. Based on an analysis of weather big data, patient age, and period-specific infection during the summer, when the wind-chill temperature and relative humidity were high, the Rotavirus A infection rate was very low. Relative humidity (p=0.020) and particulate matter (p=0.049) were associated with the average number of monthly cases of Rotavirus A infection. However, wind chill temperature (p=0.074) and rate of sunshine (p=0.993) were not associated with the average monthly distribution of Rotavirus A cases. These results indicate that Rotavirus A infection was correlated with relative humidity and particulate matter during the study period and further the current understanding of the distribution of Rotavirus A infections resulting from climatic factors and particulate matter. This could help establish climate-related health policies to reduce the incidence of diarrhea and guide the development of vaccines against Rotavirus A.

Sufficient supply of potable water, hygiene facilities, and sanitation are major factors enhancing healthy living. Using the dataset from the 2018 South Africa General Household Survey, this study employed the logistic regression model to examine the effects of accessibility to potable water and sanitation on the incidence of diarrhea among under-five children. The findings from the research reveal that the majority of children have access to safe drinking water, although a substantial percentage (32%) of the households had to pay for access. The results of the logistic regression model show that households with access to clean water, to improved toilet facilities, and to water within their residence are less likely to record incidence of diarrhea among under-five children. Moreso, the likelihood of reporting diarrhea among the children decreases with the age of children and the age of household heads. Therefore, to contribute to the designing policies targeted at reducing the incidence of diarrhea among children, this study emphasized that the availability and accessibility of clean water, water-storage facilities, and improved fecal discharge facilities among the South African households are key.

While the state of sanitation in Pakistan has improved in the last decade, a significant proportion of its population is still using inadequate sanitation or no toilet facility at all. Open defecation has decreased over the years; however, it has been replaced by poor quality sanitation in rural areas that might still cause diarrhoea and undernutrition. The research regarding inadequate sanitation in Pakistan, especially in terms of the sanitation ladder, remains limited. The present research thus fills this research gap by assessing the impact of different types of sanitation on the prevalence of stunting and underweight (moderate as well as severe) among under-five children in Pakistan using the nationally representative micro survey, Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (2017-18). The sanitation ladder comprises of piped to sewer (highest level, base) followed by flush to septic tank, flush to pit latrine, other improved, unimproved sanitation, and open defecation. In order to estimate the adjusted and unadjusted odds ratios of the determinants, this research uses logistic regressions are used to estimate adjusted and unadjusted odds ratios of the determinants. We show that toilets connected to piped sewerage network are rare in the rural areas of Pakistan and a large segment of the rural population is still practicing open defecation. The logistic regressions show that piped sewerage network and flush to septic tanks are associated with lowest odds (both adjusted and unadjusted) of stunting and underweight among under-five children. In multivariate regressions, pit latrines are associated with even higher adjusted odds of severe and moderate and severe stunting as well as underweight among under-five children, showing that poor quality pit latrines may bring the source of faecal contamination to the doorstep of the households. Therefore, interventions targeting reduction in open defecation should promote good quality toilets for sustainable long-term improvements in child health.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure alters immunological responses. Research concerning PAH exposure on intestinal immunity of children in electronic waste (e-waste) areas is scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pollutants on intestinal mucosal immunity of children in e-waste areas. Results showed higher hydroxylated PAH (OH-PAH) concentrations in e-waste-exposed children, accompanied with higher sialyl Lewis A (SLA) level, absolute lymphocyte and monocyte counts, decreased of percentage of CD4⁺ T cells, and had a higher risk of diarrhea. OH-PAH concentrations were negative with child growth. 1-OHNap mediated through WBCs, along with 1-OHPyr, was correlated with an increase SLA concentration. 2-OHFlu, 1-OHPhe, 2-OHPhe, 1-OHPyr, and 6-OHChr were positively correlated with secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) concentration. Our results indicated that PAH pollutants caused inflammation, affected the intestinal epithelium, and led to transformation of microfold cell (M cell). M cells initiating mucosal immune responses and the subsequent increasing sIgA production might be an adaptive immune respond of children in the e-waste areas. To our knowledge, this is the first study of PAH exposure on children intestinal immunity in e-waste area, showing that PAH exposure plays a negative role in child growth and impairs the intestinal immune function.

Fast growing arsenic menace is causing serious health hazards in Bihar, India, with an estimated 10 million people at risk. The exposed population is often unaware of the problem, which only amplifies the burden of arsenic health effects. In the present study, we have assessed the current situation of arsenic exposure in Chapar village of Samastipur district, Bihar. The health of the inhabitants was assessed and correlated with (1) arsenic concentrations in the groundwater of individual wells and (2) arsenic concentration found in their hair and urine. Altogether, 113 inhabitants were assessed, and 113 hair, urine and groundwater samples were collected. The health study reveals that the exposure to arsenic has caused serious health hazard amongst the exposed population with pronounced skin manifestations, loss of appetite, anaemia, constipation, diarrhoea, general body weakness, raised blood pressure, breathlessness, diabetes, mental disabilities, diabetes, lumps in the body and few cancer incidences. It was found that 52% of the total collected groundwater samples had arsenic levels higher than the WHO limit of 10 µg/l (with a maximum arsenic concentration of 1212 µg/l) and the reduced arsenite was the predominant form in samples tested for speciation (N = 19). In the case of hair samples, 29% of the samples had arsenic concentrations higher than the permissible limit of 0.2 mg/kg, with a maximum arsenic concentration of 46 µg/l, while in 20% exposed population, there was significant arsenic contamination in urine samples > 50 µg/l. In Chapar village, the probability of carcinogenic-related risk in the exposed population consuming arsenic contaminated water is 100% for children, 99.1% for females and 97.3% for male subjects. The assessment report shared to the government enabled the village population to receive two arsenic filter units. These units are currently operational and catering 250 households providing arsenic-free water through piped water scheme. This study therefore identified a significant solution for this arsenic-exposed population.

Abnormal climate changes have resulted in over-precipitation in many regions. The occurrence and contamination levels of mycotoxins in crops and cereals have been elevated largely. From 2017 to 2019, we did investigation targeting 15 mycotoxins shown in the wheat samples collected from Shandong, a region suffering over-precipitation in China. We found that deoxynivalenol (DON) was the dominant mycotoxin contaminating wheats, with detection rates 304/340 in 2017 (89.41%), 303/330 in 2018 (91.82%), and 303/340 in 2019 (89.12%). The ranges of DON levels were < 4 to 580 μg/kg in 2017, < 4 to 3070 μg/kg in 2018, and < 4 to 1540 μg/kg in 2019. The exposure levels were highly correlated with local precipitation. Male exposure levels were generally higher than female’s, with significant difference found in 2017 (1.89-fold, p = 0.023). Rural exposure levels were higher than that of cities but not statistically significant (1.41-fold, p = 0.13). Estimated daily intake (EDI) and margin of exposure (MoE) approaches revealed that 8 prefecture cities have probabilistically extra adverse health effects (vomiting or diarrhea) cases > 100 patients in 100,000 residents attributable to DON exposure. As a prominent wheat-growing area, Dezhou city reached ~ 300/100,000 extra cases while being considered as a major regional contributor to DON contamination. Our study suggests that more effort should be given to the prevention and control of DON contamination in major wheat-growing areas, particularly during heavy precipitation year. The mechanistic association between DON and chronic intestinal disorder/diseases should be further investigated.

Previous studies have explored the effect between ambient temperature and infectious diarrhea (ID) mostly using relative risk, which provides limited information in practical applications. Few studies have focused on the disease burden of ID caused by temperature, especially for different subgroups and cities in a multi-city setting. This study aims to estimate the effects and attributable risks of temperature on category C ID and explore potential modifiers among various cities in Guangdong. First, distributed lag non-linear models (DLNMs) were used to explore city-specific associations between daily mean temperature and category C ID from 2014 to 2016 in Guangdong and pooled by applying multivariate meta-analysis. Then, multivariate meta-regression was implemented to analyze the potential heterogeneity among various cities. Finally, we assessed the attributable burden of category C ID due to temperature, low (below the 5th percentile of temperature) and high temperature (above the 95th percentile of temperature) for each city and subgroup population. Compared with the 50th percentile of daily mean temperature, adverse effects on category C ID were found when the temperature was lower than 12.27 ℃ in Guangdong Province. Some city-specific factors (longitude, urbanization rate, population density, disposable income per capita, and the number of medical technicians and beds per thousand persons) could modify the relationship of temperature-category C ID. During the study period, there were 60,505 category C ID cases (17.14% of total cases) attributable to the exposure of temperature, with the attributable fraction (AF) of low temperature (4.23%, 95% empirical confidence interval (eCI): 1.79–5.71%) higher than high temperature (1.34%, 95% eCI: 0.86–1.64%). Males, people under 5 years, and workers appeared to be more vulnerable to temperature, with AFs of 29.40%, 19.25%, and 21.49%, respectively. The AF varied substantially at the city level, with the largest AF of low temperature occurring in Shaoguan (9.58%, 95% eCI: 8.36–10.09%), and that of high temperature occurring in Shenzhen (3.16%, 95% eCI: 2.70–3.51%). Low temperature was an important risk factor for category C ID in Guangdong Province, China. The exposure–response relationship could be modified by city-specific characteristics. Considering the whole population, the attributable risk of low temperature was much higher than that of high temperature, and males, people under 5 years, and workers were vulnerable populations.

Water is a vital resource to every living thing on the earth. Once the water is contaminated (physically, chemically, biologically, or radiologically), it brought negative impacts to the living thing. This paper provides a brief review of the characterization of biological pollutants in drinking water and their effects on human health. Some biological contamination was detected in water resources such as pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella, etc.), viruses (hepatitis A virus, hepatitis E virus, rotavirus, etc.), parasites (Giardia, Entamoeba, Cyclospora, etc.), and parasitic worm (Ascaris lumbricoides, Ancylostoma duodenale, Strongyloides stercoralis, etc.). The diseases were significantly prevalent in developing countries due to limited access to clean water and poor sanitation. Most of the diseases had common symptoms such as diarrhea, fever, and body and muscle aches that were transmitted to humans through the fecal–oral route. About 1.7 billion children were affected by diarrhea each year and about 525,000 of the children died each year. Besides, nearly 1 million adults were killed by diarrhea every year. Some treatment was implemented to remove the biological contamination in drinking water, such as oxidation treatment, ultraviolet radiation, distillation, biologically active carbon filtration, electrochemical, and nanotechnology.