Observational studies have indicated that low-to-moderate exposure to cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg) adversely affects birth anthropometry, but results are inconclusive. The aim of this study was to elucidate potential impact on birth anthropometry of exposure to Cd, Pb, and Hg in pregnant women, and to identify the main dietary sources. In the NICE (Nutritional impact on Immunological maturation during Childhood in relation to the Environment) birth-cohort in northern Sweden, blood and urine were collected from pregnant women in early third trimester. Cd, Pb and Hg were measured in erythrocytes (n = 584), and Cd also in urine (n = 581), by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Dietary data were collected through a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire administered in mid-third trimester. Birth anthropometry data were extracted from hospital records. In multivariable-adjusted spline regression models, a doubling of maternal erythrocyte Cd (median: 0.29 μg/kg) above the spline knot of 0.50 μg/kg was associated with reduced birth weight (B: −191 g; 95% CI: −315, −68) and length (−0.67 cm; −1.2, −0.14). The association with birth weight remained when the analysis was restricted to never-smokers. Likewise, a doubling of erythrocyte Hg (median 1.5 μg/kg, mainly MeHg) above 1.0 μg/kg, was associated with decreased birth weight (−59 g; −115, −3.0), and length (−0.29 cm; −0.54, −0.047). Maternal Pb (median 11 μg/kg) was unrelated to birth weight and length. Erythrocyte Cd was primarily associated with intake of plant derived foods, Pb with game meat, tea and coffee, and Hg with fish. The results indicated that low-level maternal Cd and Hg exposure were associated with poorer birth anthropometry. Further prospective studies in low-level exposed populations are warranted.

The effects of Pb pollution on cattle and sheep raised in an ancient mining area were studied through the use of blood Pb (PbB) levels and δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity. Lead levels in livestock blood from the mining area (n=110) were significantly elevated when compared to the controls (n=79). In 91.4% of cattle (n=58) and 13.5% of sheep (n=52) sampled in the mining area, PbB levels corresponded to subclinical exposure (6–35μg/dl). Two young cattle (<2 years) from the mining area (n=5) had PbB levels indicative of clinical poisoning (>35μg/dl). Elevated PbB was also accompanied by δ-ALAD activity inhibition in blood, which confirms that measurable effects of Pb poisoning were taking place. Observed PbB levels suggest that a potential risk to human consumers of beef from the Pb polluted areas may also exist, as has been shown previously for game meat from the same mining area.

Genetic effects and radioactive contamination of large mammals, including wild boar (Sus scrofa), have been studied in Japan because of dispersal of radionuclides from the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant in 2011. Such studies have generally demonstrated a declining trend in measured radiocesium body burdens in wildlife. Estimating radiation exposure to wildlife is important to understand possible long-term impacts. Here, radiation exposure was evaluated in 307 wild boar inhabiting radioactively contaminated areas (50–8000 kBq m⁻²) in Fukushima Prefecture from 2016 to 2019, and genetic markers were examined to assess possible germline mutations caused by chronic radiation exposures to several generations of wild boar. Internal Cs activity concentrations in boar remained high in areas near the power plant with the highest concentration of 54 kBq kg⁻¹ measured in 2019. Total dose rates to wild boar ranged from 0.02 to 36 μGy h⁻¹, which was primarily attributed to external radiation exposure, and dose rates to the maximally exposed animals were above the generic no-effects benchmark of 10 μGy h⁻¹. Using the estimated age of each animal, lifetime radiation doses ranged from <0.1 mGy to 700 mGy. Despite chronic exposures, the genetic analyses showed no significant accumulation of mutation events. Because wild boar is an occasional human dietary item in Japan, effective dose to humans from ingesting contaminated wild boar meat was calculated. Hypothetical consumption of contaminated wild boar meat from radioactively contaminated areas in Fukushima, at the per capita pork consumption rate (12.9 kg y⁻¹), would result in an average effective annual dose of 0.9 mSv y⁻¹, which is below the annual ingestion limit of 1 mSv y⁻¹. Additionally, a consumption rate of about 1.4 kg y⁻¹ of the most contaminated meat in this study would not exceed annual ingestion limits.

This is the first field study to evaluate lead exposure in dogs fed game meat and offal and, to our knowledge, the first study exploring associations between game consumption and dog health status. We quantified lead concentrations in blood and hair and haematological parameters of 31 dogs fed game meat and offal from wild boar (Sus scrofa) and axis deer (Axis axis) culled with lead ammunition in El Palmar National Park, Argentina. Despite variable weekly frequency in game consumption, dogs had detectable blood and hair lead levels, demonstrating recent and chronic exposure. Lead geometric mean and SD were 18.91 ± 346.85 μg/dL w.w. in blood (range = 0.53–216.58), and 0.721 ± 6.444 μg/gr d.w. in hair (range = 0.007–34.800). Hair lead levels were relatively low in most samples, except for the oldest dog which had an atypically high value concurrent with anaemia, a common outcome of chronic lead exposure. Dog’s owner was significantly predictive of both blood and hair lead levels, which reflects the same feeding patterns for all dogs owned by the same person. Body condition was associated with hair lead, with dogs in good condition presenting higher lead levels. This could be related to greater game consumption by those dogs, resulting in higher lead ingestion. Dogs fed game meat and offal at very low or low frequency (≤4 times per week) showed higher blood lead levels, suggesting there might not be a risk-free frequency for game provision to dogs. Considering the risks of dietary lead exposure, avoiding feeding dogs lead-killed game and replacing lead ammunition with non-toxic alternatives are recommended. This would allow using hunted game as a valuable food resource without unnecessary risk for the health of consumers and the environment.

Consumption of meat from animals hunted with Pb ammunition can cause toxic accumulation with consequent health risks, even if relatively small amounts are consumed in each exposure. In El Palmar National Park, Argentina, invasive alien mammals, wild boar (Sus scrofa) and axis deer (Axis axis), are culled with Pb ammunition and their meat is consumed. In this study, we evaluated blood Pb concentrations in 58 consumers of culled game and examined Pb exposure risk according to their demographics, duty, and consumption habits. Likewise, the likelihood of exposure was evaluated by quantifying Pb concentrations in meat samples of seven culled axis deer. Twenty-seven participants (46%) had detectable blood Pb levels (limit of detection = 3.3 μg/dL), with an average 4.75 ± 1.35 μg/dL (geometric mean ± geometric S.D.); the average for all participants was 3.25 ± 1.51 μg/dL. Blood Pb concentrations were significantly higher in hunters, in participants who reported consuming game meat more than 5 times per week, and in participants who reported frequently consuming cured game meat (compared to cooked or pickled). Pb concentration varied significantly along the trajectory of the bullet in deer muscle, being highest at mid-point but with detectable Pb levels even in distant tissue samples (control), suggesting potential for dietary intake by consumers. These findings provide evidence of Pb exposure risk in consumers and emphasize the relevance of replacing Pb ammunition with non-toxic alternatives. This change would reduce dietary exposure in frequent consumers and allow the use of game meat as safe food for people whilst eliminating collateral risks to wild animals and the environment.