In this study, we demonstrate that regression analysis of trajectories residence time estimates the contributions of geographical sectors to fine and coarse particle mass in urban receptor sites. We applied the methodology to coarse and fine particles in Amsterdam, Athens, Birmingham and Helsinki. The sectors with the highest contributions on PM2.5 and PM10–2.5 for Amsterdam and Birmingham were Central/Eastern Europe and the Atlantic Ocean/North Sea, respectively. For Athens, the four sectors within 500 km accounted for the largest fraction of PM2.5. The Mediterranean Sea and North Africa added more than half of PM10–2.5 in Athens. For Helsinki, more than 50% of PM2.5 and PM10–2.5 were from sources outside Finland. This approach may be applied to assess the impact of transport on particle mass levels, identify the spatial patterns of particle sources and generate valuable data to design national and transnational efficient emission control strategies.

Environmental pollutants exert immunotoxical effects on aquatic organisms. The aim was to determine the antioxidant response, markers of oxidative damage and reactive oxygen species production in hemocytes of Pinna nobilis, the largest endemic bivalve in the Mediterranean Sea, under anthropogenic pressure. P. nobilis individuals were collected from two locations along Mallorca Island waters attending to different degree of human impact and the hemocytes were obtained. Specimens from the impacted area showed increased activities of the antioxidant enzymes – catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase –, myeloperoxidase activity and reduced glutathione levels. No differences in oxidative damage markers – malondiahdehyde and carbonyl index – were evidenced between the pristine and polluted areas. Hemocytes from the polluted area presented increased capability to generate reactive oxygen species and nitrite/nitrate when activated. In conclusion, the human activities primed hemocytes for oxidative burst and increased the antioxidant mechanism without evidence of oxidative damage.

Mercury levels measured in 302 hair samples of 4 year-old children from Menorca (western Mediterranean Sea) are reported. Their concentrations, arithmetic mean 1.4 μg/g, ranging between 0.040 μg/g and 10 μg/g, were higher than in other children inland populations but lower than in previously studied island cohorts, e.g. Faroe, Madeira and Seychelles. 20% of the samples were above the WHO recommended values. Higher concentrations in females than males were observed. Frequent consumption of fish and other seafood were significantly related to the observed mercury concentrations. Oily fish was the main source of this pollutant but shellfish and squid consumption were also associated with high mercury concentrations. Maternal smoking, occupational status or previous siblings were also found to significantly influence the levels of this pollutant. McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities used to assess children's motor and cognitive abilities did not show association with mercury concentrations at 4 years of age.

Marine debris has been found in marine animals since the early 20th century, but little is known about the impacts of the ingestion of debris in large marine mammals. In this study we describe a case of mortality of a sperm whale related to the ingestion of large amounts of marine debris in the Mediterranean Sea (4th published case worldwide to our knowledge), and discuss it within the context of the spatial distribution of the species and the presence of anthropogenic activities in the area that could be the source of the plastic debris found inside the sperm whale. The spatial distribution modelled for the species in the region shows that these animals can be seen in two distinct areas: near the waters of Almería, Granada and Murcia and in waters near the Strait of Gibraltar. The results shows how these animals feed in waters near an area completely flooded by the greenhouse industry, making them vulnerable to its waste products if adequate treatment of this industry’s debris is not in place. Most types of these plastic materials have been found in the individual examined and cause of death was presumed to be gastric rupture following impaction with debris, which added to a previous problem of starvation. The problem of plastics arising from greenhouse agriculture should have a relevant section in the conservation plans and should be a recommendation from ACCOBAMS due to these plastics’ and sperm whales’ high mobility in the Mediterranean Sea.

This work evaluated the presence and the frequency of occurrence of marine litter in the gastrointestinal tract of 31 Caretta caretta found stranded or accidentally bycaught in the North Tyrrhenian Sea. Marine debris were present in 71% of specimens and were subdivided in different categories according to Fulmar Protocol (OSPAR 2008). The main type of marine debris found was user plastic, with the main occurrence of sheetlike user plastic. The small juveniles showed a mean±SD of marine debris items of 19.00±23.84, while the adult specimens showed higher values of marine litter if compared with the juveniles (26.87±35.85). The occurrence of marine debris observed in this work confirms the high impact of marine debris in the Mediterranean Sea in respect to other seas and oceans, and highlights the importance of Caretta caretta as good indicator for marine litter in the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) of European Union.

The distribution of Ruppia cirrhosa meadow density and its epiphytic organisms in relation with environmental factors were studied in summer 2011 at five stations in the Ghar El Melh lagoon (GML; southern Mediterranean Sea). Eleven epiphytic groups were recognised among which diatoms and dinoflagellates were the dominant groups and greatest contributors to temporal dissimilarity. An overwhelming concentrations of harmful microalgae was recorded, mainly represented by the toxic dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima with maximal concentrations attaining 6×105cells 100g−1 of Ruppia fresh weight. The epifauna community accounted for only 1.4% of total epiphyte abundance and was comprised predominantly of nematodes (47.51%), ciliates (32.59%), fish eggs (7.2%) and larvae (4.95%). PERMANOVA analyses revealed a significant spatio-temporal variation of all epiphytic groups (p<0.01). In this study, R. cirrhosa and its epiphytes were studied as potential early warning indicators of the health status of GML waters.

Making nature’s value visible to humans is a key issue for the XXI century and it is crucial to identify and measure natural capital to incorporate benefits or costs of changes in ecosystem services into policy. Emergy analysis, a method able to analyze the overall functioning of a system, was applied to reckon the value of main ecosystem services provided by Posidonia oceanica, a fragile and precious Mediterranean seagrass ecosystem. Estimates, based on calculation of resources employed by nature, resulted in a value of 172€m−2a−1. Sediment retained by meadow is most relevant input, composing almost the whole P. oceanica value. Remarks about economic losses arising from meadow regression have been made through a time-comparison of meadow maps. Suggested procedure represents an operative tool to provide a synthetic monetary measure of ecosystem services to be employed when comparing natural capital to human and financial capitals in a substitutability perspective.

Plastic debris is often ingested by marine predators and can cause health disorders and even death. We present the first assessment of plastic ingestion in Mediterranean seabirds. We quantified and measured plastics accumulated in the stomach of 171 birds from 9 species accidentally caught by longliners in the western Mediterranean from 2003 to 2010. Cory’s shearwaters (Calonectris diomedea) showed the highest occurrence (94%) and large numbers of small plastic particles per affected bird (on average N=15.3±24.4 plastics and mass=23.4±49.6mg), followed by Yelkouan shearwaters (Puffinus yelkouan, 70%, N=7.0±7.9, 42.1±100.0mg), Balearic shearwaters (Puffinus mauretanicus, 70%, N=3.6±2.9, 5.5±9.7mg) and the rest of species (below 33%, N=2.7, 113.6±128.4mg). Plastic characteristics did not differ between sexes and were not related to the physical condition of the birds. Our results point out the three endemic and threatened shearwater species as being particularly exposed to plastic accumulation.

A multisyringe flow injection analysis system using a liquid waveguide capillary cell (MSFIA-LWCC) has been used for the spectrophotometric determination of titanium (Ti) in marine environmental samples. Samples were previous digested using potassium peroxodisulfate (K2S2O8). The method showed to be linear over a range up to 1μM with a detection limit of 9.2nM. The analysis consumes little reagent (250μL) and sample (600μL). It had an adequate accuracy with high repeatability (RSD of 1.8%) for all marine samples. The proposed method was used to evaluate the concentration of Ti in natural samples collected in the coastal area of the Majorca Island (Western Mediterranean Sea). We report average concentrations of Ti in coastal surface microlayer of 510.7±267.2nM, in surface sediments of 2.72±1.84μmol/g, and in rhizomes and leaves of Posidonia oceanica of 310±295nmol/g and 157±132nmol/g, respectively.

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), widely used for their hydro-oil repellent properties, are almost non-degradable in the environment; there is scientific evidence that indicate bioaccumulation. They represent a threat to many organisms, because they are toxic and are endocrine disruptors. Scientific studies have demonstrated the presence of PFCs in blood and liver samples of fish, turtles, birds and mammals of marine ecosystems in different geographical areas. The aim of this study was to determine the distribution of PFOS and PFOA in blood samples of the marine turtle Caretta caretta, using a minimally invasive sampling procedure. 49 blood samples of marine turtle, taken from several Italian marine turtle rescue centers, were analyzed. While PFOA was never detected, measurable concentrations of PFOS were found in 15 blood samples; the values show a range from 1.14ng/g to 28.51ng/g (wet wt.). No differences between groups of samples taken from different areas were found.