Understanding of aquaporins (AQPs) facilitating the transport of water and many other small solutes including metalloids like silicon (Si) and arsenic (As) is important to develop stress tolerant cultivars. In the present study, 40 AQPs were identified in the genome of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), a pulse crop widely grown in semi-arid region and areas known to affected with heavy metals like As. Conserved domains, variation at NPA motifs, aromatic/arginine (ar/R) selectivity filters, and pore morphology defined here will be crucial in predicting solute specificity of pigeonpea AQPs. The study identified CcNIP2-1 as an AQP predicted to transporter Si (beneficial element) as well as As (hazardous element). Further Si quantification in different tissues showed about 1.66% Si in leaves which confirmed the predictions. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy showed a higher level of Si accumulation in trichomes on the leaf surface. A significant alleviation in level of As, Sb and Ge stress was also observed when these heavy metals were supplemented with Si. Estimation of relative water content, H₂O₂, lipid peroxidation, proline, total chlorophyll content and other physiological parameters suggested Si derived stress tolerance. Extensive transcriptome profiling under different developmental stages from germination to senescence was performed to understand the tissue-specific regulation of different AQPs. For instance, high expression of TIP3s was observed only in reproductive tissues. Co-expression network developed using transcriptome data from 30 different conditions and tissues, showed interdependency of AQPs. Expression profiling of pigeonpea performed using real time PCR showed differential expression of AQPs after Si supplementation. The information generated about the phylogeny, distribution, molecular evolution, solute specificity, and gene expression dynamics in article will be helpful to better understand the AQP transport system in pigeonpea and other legumes.

Variations in different characters of the pigeonpea were studied using 122 accessions under rainfed condition during 2013. The characters considered viz., days to 50 per cent flowering, plant height (cm), days to physiological maturity, pods per plant, pod bearing length (cm), seeds per pod, 100 seed weight (g) and seed yield per plant (g) were used for the analysis. K-means cluster analysis was carried out based on the mean values and classified 122 accessions into four distinct clusters. The cluster-I (14 accessions), cluster-II (40 accessions), cluster-III (17 accessions) and in fourth cluster 51 accessions were distinctly classified. It is found that, days to physiological maturity, pods per plant, days to 50 per cent flowering and pod bearing length (cm) were significant discriminating characters. The stepwise discriminant analysis showed that pods per plant and days to physiological maturity were highly discriminating characters and these two characters were explained by the 98.8 percent variation in the accessions studied and these accessions were classified 97.5 percent correctly in the four clusters.

Nickel (Ni) is an essential micronutrient but considered toxic for plant growth when present in excess in the soil. Polyamines (PAs) and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) play key roles in alleviating metal toxicity in plants. Present study compared the roles of AM and PAs in improving rhizobial symbiosis, ureide, and trehalose (Tre) metabolism under Ni stress in Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) genotypes (Pusa 2001, AL 201). The results documented significant negative impacts of Ni on plant biomass, especially roots, more in AL 201 than Pusa 2001. Symbiotic efficiency with Rhizobium and AM declined under Ni stress, resulting in reduced AM colonization, N₂ fixation, and ureide biosynthesis. This decline was proportionate to increased Ni uptake in roots and nodules. Put-reduced Ni uptake improved plant growth and functional efficiency of nodules and ureides synthesis, with higher positive effects than other PAs. However, AM inoculations were most effective in enhancing nodulation, nitrogen fixing potential, and Tre synthesis under Ni toxicity. Combined applications of AM with respective PAs, especially +Put+AM, were highly beneficial in alleviating Ni-induced nodule senescence by arresting leghemoglobin degradation and improving functional efficiency of nodules by boosting Tre metabolism, especially in Pusa 2001. The study suggested use of Put along with AM as a promising approach in imparting Ni tolerance to pigeon pea plants.

Organic matter derived from living, or recently living plant and animal, which can be used as fuel is called as biomass. It includes wood and agricultural waste such as dead plant etc. In India, majority of population depends largely upon agriculture as their primary source of income. Following every harvest, a huge amount of biomass is generated. It is mostly discarded as “agro waste”; however, recently, several uses of biomass and its derivatives have been reported. Thermochemical processing of biomass in absence of oxygen produces biomass char and flue gases which are of economic importance. However, it is necessary to characterize the physical and chemical properties of these components so as to utilize their potential benefit to the fullest. In this study, six different biomass remains that include mustard plant, groundnut plant, cotton plant, wheat plant, pigeon peas, and groundnut shell were pyrolyzed at 650 °C, in vertical downdraft fixed-bed biomass reactor. The flue gases were characterized in detail by gas chromatography. X-ray fluorescence, proximate, and ultimate analyses were performed on all BMC (biomass char) samples, and properties such as porosity, particle density, bulk density, point of zero charge, surface pH, surface charges, water-absorption capacity, and BET surface area were determined. SEM and FTIR were also carried out on all BMC samples. Our results showed that the surface area of biomass char varies from 38 to 138 m²/g. The solution pH for all BMC exceeds 8.6, thus confirmed the alkaline nature. Comparison between combustion products produced in the presence (biomass ash) and absence of oxygen (biomass char) is presented. BMC finds applications in agriculture, soil neutralizer, adsorbent, and soil additive. They have high amount of carbon and can act as a rich carbon source for the soil. Flue gases released contain methane and hydrogen which can also improve economic value for the char formation process.

In India, farming is the primary source of income for many families. Following each harvest, a huge amount of biomass is generated. These are generally discarded as “agrowaste,” but recent reports have indicated several beneficial uses for these biomasses and their ashes. However, before the utilization of biomass ashes (BMAs), their chemical and physical properties need to be investigated (characterized) so as to utilize their potential benefit to the fullest. In this paper, eight different biomass ashes (soybean plant ash, mustard plant ash, maize ash, groundnut plant ash, cotton plant ash, wheat plant ash, pigeon peas ash, and groundnut shell ash) were characterized, and their chemical properties are discussed. Surface chemical composition analysis, proximate analysis, and ultimate analysis were performed on all BMA samples, and properties such as porosity, particle density, bulk density, point of zero charge, BET surface area, water-absorption capacity, and bulk parameters such as surface pH and surface charges were determined. BMAs were characterized by SEM and FTIR. The surface areas of biomass ashes vary from 1.9 to 46 m²/g, and point of zero charge for all BMAs exceed 9.8, which confirmed the alkaline nature of these samples. Based on the chemical composition, BMAs are categorized into four types (S, C, K, and CK), and their utilization is proposed based on the type. BMAs find applications in agriculture and construction industries; glass, rubber, and zeolite manufacturing; and in adsorption (as a source of silica/zeolites). The paper also discusses the research challenges and opportunities in utilization of BMAs.

A study was conducted in fluoride-affected Bankura and Purulia districts of West Bengal to assess the potential health risk from fluoride exposure among children, teenagers, and adults due to consumption of rice, pulses, and vegetables in addition to drinking water and incidental ingestion of soil by children. Higher mean fluoride contents (13–63 mg/kg dry weight) were observed in radish, carrot, onion bulb, brinjal, potato tuber, cauliflower, cabbage, coriander, and pigeon pea. The combined influence of rice, pulses, and vegetables to cumulative estimated daily intake (EDI) of fluoride for the studied population was found to be 9.5–16%. Results also showed that intake of ivy gourd, broad beans, rice, turnip, fenugreek leaves, mustard, spinach, and amaranth grown in the study area is safe at least for time being. The cumulative EDI values of fluoride (0.06–0.19 mg/kg-day) among different age group of people of the study area were evaluated to be ~10⁴ times higher than those living in the control area; the values for children (0.19 and 0.52 mg/kg-day for CTE and RME scenarios, respectively) were also greater than the “Tolerable Upper Intake Level” value of fluoride. The estimated hazard index (HI) for children (3.2 and 8.7 for CTE and RME scenarios, respectively) living in the two affected districts reveals that they are at high risk of developing dental fluorosis due to the consumption of fluoride-contaminated rice, pulses, and vegetables grown in the study area in addition to the consumption of contaminated drinking water.

Arsenic (As) gets accumulated in plants via phosphorous transporters and water channels and interferes with nutrient and water uptake, adversely affecting growth and productivity. Although, Si and AM have been reported to combat arsenic stress, their comparative and interactive roles in ameliorating As V and As III toxicities have not been reported. Study evaluated effects of Si and Rhizophagus irregularis on growth, As uptake and yield under arsenate and arsenite stress in two pigeonpea genotypes (metal tolerant—Pusa 2002 and metal sensitive—Pusa 991). Higher As accumulation and translocation was observed in As III treated roots of Pusa 991 than those of Pusa 2002 when compared with As V. Roots were more negatively affected than shoots which led to a significant decline in nutrient uptake, leaf chlorophylls, and yield, with As III inducing more negative effects. Pusa 2002 established more effective mycorrhizal symbiosis and had higher biomass than Pusa 991. Si was more effective in inducing shoot biomass while AM inoculation significantly improved root biomass. AM enhanced Si uptake in roots and leaves in a genotype dependent manner. Combined application of Si and AM were highly beneficial in improving leaf water status, chlorophyll pigments, biomass, and productivity. Complete amelioration of negative impacts of both concentrations of As V and lower concentration of As III were recorded under +Si +AM in Pusa 2002. Results highlighted great potential of Si in improving growth and productivity of pigeonpea through R. irregularis under As V and As III stresses.

Arsenic (As) is the most hazardous soil contaminant, which inactivates metabolic enzymes and restrains plant growth. To withstand As stress conditions, use of some alleviative tools, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and silicon (Si), has gained importance. Therefore, the present study evaluated comparative and interactive effects of Si and arbuscular mycorrhiza-Rhizophagus irregularis on phytotoxicity of arsenate (As V) and arsenite (As III) on plant growth, ROS generation, and antioxidant defense responses in pigeonpea genotypes (Tolerant-Pusa 2002; Sensitive-Pusa 991). Roots of As III treated plants accumulated significantly higher total As than As V supplemented plants, more in Pusa 991 than Pusa 2002, which corresponded to proportionately decreased plant growth, root to biomass ratio, and oxidative burst. Although Si nutrition and AM inoculations improved plant growth by significantly reducing As uptake and the resultant oxidative burst, AM was relatively more efficient in upregulating enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense responses as well as ascorbate–glutathione pathway when compared with Si. Pusa 2002 was more receptive to Si nourishment due to its ability to establish more efficient mycorrhizal symbiosis, which led to higher Si uptake and lower As concentrations. Moreover, +Si+AM bestowed better metalloid resistance by further reducing ROS and strengthening antioxidants. Results demonstrated that the genotype with more efficient AM symbiosis in As-contaminated soils could accrue higher benefits of Si fertilization in terms of metalloid tolerance in pigeonpea.

Soil salinity is a major constraint that limits legume productivity. Pigeonpea is a salt sensitive crop. Seed gamma irradiation at a very low dose (2.5 Gy) is known to enhance seedling establishment, plant growth and yield of cereals and other crops. The present study conducted using two genetically diverse varieties of pigeonpea viz., Pusa-991 and Pusa-992 aimed at establishing the role of pre-sowing seed gamma irradiation at 0, 0.0025, 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.05 and 0.1 kGy on plant growth, seed yield and seed quality under salt stress at 0, 80 and 100 mM NaCl (soil solution EC equivalent 1.92, 5.86 and 8.02 dS/m, respectively) imposed right from the beginning of the experiment. Changes in carbon flow dynamics between shoot and root and concentration of osmolyte, glycine betaine, plant uptake and shoot and root partitioning of Na⁺ and K⁺ and activity of protein degrading enzyme protease were measured under the combined effect of gamma irradiation and salt stress. Positive affect of pre-sowing exposure of seed to low dose of gamma irradiation (<0.01 kGy) under salt stress was evident in pigeonpea. Pigeonpea variety, Pusa-992 showed a better salt tolerance response than Pusa-991 and that the radiated plants performed better than the unirradiated plants even at increasing salinity level. Seed yield and seed protein and iron content were also positively affected by the low dose gamma irradiation under NaCl stress. Multiple factors interacted to determine physiological salt tolerance response of pigeonpea varieties. Gamma irradiation caused a favourable alteration in the source-sink (shoot-root) partitioning of recently fixed carbon (¹⁴C) under salt stress in pigeonpea. Gamma irradiation of seeds prior to sowing enhanced glycine betaine content and reduced protease activity at 60-day stage under various salt stress regimes. Lower partitioning of Na⁺and relatively higher accumulation of K⁺ under irradiation treatment was the other important determinants that differentiated between salt-tolerant and salt-susceptible variety of pigeonpea. The study provides evidence and physiological basis for exploring exploitation of pre-sowing exposure of seeds with low-dose gamma ray for enhancing the salt tolerance response of crop plants.