With increasingly stringent regulations on emission criteria and environment pollution concerns, marine fuel oils (particularly heavy fuel oils) that are commonly used today for powering ships will no longer be allowed in the future. Various maritime energy strategies are now needed for the long-term upgrade that might span decades, and quantitative predictions are necessary to assess the outcomes of their implementation for decision support purpose. To address the technical need, a novel approach is developed in this study that can incorporate the strategic implementation of fuel choices and quantify their adequacy in meeting future environmental pollution legislations for ship emissions. The core algorithm in this approach is based on probabilistic simulations with a large sample size of ship movement in the designated port area, derived using a Bayesian ship traffic generator from existing real activity data. Its usefulness with scenario modelling is demonstrated with application examples at five major ports, namely the Ports of Shanghai, Singapore, Tokyo, Long Beach, and Hamburg, for assessment at Years 2020, 2030, and 2050 with three economic scenarios. The included fuel choices in the application examples are comprehensive, including heavy fuel oils, distillates, low sulphur fuel oils, ultra-low sulphur fuel oils, liquefied natural gas, hydrogen, biofuel, methanol, and electricity (battery). Various features are fine-tuned to reflect micro-level changes on the fuel choices, terminal location, and/or ship technology. Future atmospheric pollutant emissions with various maritime energy strategies implemented at these ports are then discussed comprehensively in details to demonstrate the usefulness of the approach.

Light absorbing carbonaceous aerosols (LACA) consisting of black carbon (BC) and brown carbon (BrC) have received considerable attention because of their climate and health implications, but their sources, characteristics and fates remain unclear in Southeast Asia (SEA). In this study, we investigated spatio-temporal characteristics of LACA, their radiative properties and potential sources in Singapore under different weather conditions. Hourly BC concentrations, measured from May 2017 to March 2018, ranged from 0.31 μg/m³ to 14.37 μg/m³ with the mean value being 2.44 ± 1.51 μg/m³. High mass concentrations of BC were observed during the south-west monsoon (SWM, 2.60 ± 1.56 μg/m³) while relatively low mass concentrations were recorded during the north-east monsoon (NEM, 1.68 ± 0.96 μg/m³). There was a shift in the Absorption Ångström exponent (AAE) from 1.1 to 1.4 when the origin of LACA changed from fossil fuel (FF) to biomass burning (BB) combustion. This shift is attributed to the presence of secondary BrC in LACA, derived from transboundary BB emissions during the SWM. Lower AAE values were observed when local traffic emissions were dominant during the NEM. This explanation is supported by measurements of water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) in LACA and the corresponding AAE values determined at 365 nm using a UV–vis spectrophotometer. The AAE values, indicative of the presence of brown carbon (BrC), showed that photochemically aged LACA contribute to an enhancement in the light absorption of aerosols. In addition, spatio-temporal characteristics of BC in the intra-urban environment of Singapore were investigated across diverse outdoor and indoor microenvironments. High variability of BC was evident across these microenvironments. Several air pollution hotspots with elevated BC concentrations were identified. Overall, the results stress a need to control anthropogenic emissions of BC and BrC in order to mitigate near-term climate change impacts and provide health benefits.

A study of 16 United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) priority listed PAHs associated with particulate matter ≤ 10 μm (PM10) was conducted in Singapore during the period 29th May 2015 to 28th May 2016. The sampling period coincided with an extensive, regional smoke haze episode (5th September to 25th October) that occurred as a result of forest and peat fires in neighboring Indonesia. Throughout this study, 54 atmospheric PM10 samples were collected in 24 h periods using a high volume sampler (HVS) and quarts fiber filters (QFF) as the collection medium. Hysplit software for computing 3-D backward air mass trajectories, diagnostic ratio analysis and ring number distribution calculations were used to examine the sources of PAHs in the atmosphere in Singapore. Under normal conditions the total PAH concentrations were in a range from 0.68 ng m−3 to 3.07 ng m−3, while for the high haze period the results showed approximately double the concentrations with a maximum value of 5.97 ng m−3. Diagnostic ratio (DR) and principal component analysis (PCA) were conducted and indicated the contribution of the traffic as a dominant pyrogenic source of PAHs during normal periods, while results from the haze dataset showed relatively strong influence of smoke from peat and forest fires in Indonesia. Environmental and health risk from PAHs were assessed for both regular and hazy days.

In this study, we assess the intense pollution episode of June 2013, in Riau province, Indonesia from land clearing. We relied on satellite retrievals of aerosols and Carbon monoxide (CO) due to lack of ground measurements. We used both the yearly and daily data for aerosol optical depth (AOD), fine mode fraction (FMF), aerosol absorption optical depth (AAOD) and UV aerosol index (UVAI) for characterizing variations. We found significant enhancement in aerosols and CO during the pollution episode. Compared to mean (2008–2012) June AOD of 0.40, FMF-0.39, AAOD-0.45, UVAI-1.77 and CO of 200 ppbv, June 2013 values reached 0.8, 0.573, 0.672, 1.77 and 978 ppbv respectively. Correlations of fire counts with AAOD and UVAI were stronger compared to AOD and FMF. Results from a trajectory model suggested transport of air masses from Indonesia towards Malaysia, Singapore and southern Thailand. Our results highlight satellite-based mapping and monitoring of pollution episodes in Southeast Asia.

Heavy metal or metalloid contamination is a common problem in soils of urban environments. Their introduction can be due to unpremeditated anthropogenic activities like atmospheric deposition produced by diffuse sources, construction activities and landscape maintenance. Phytoremediation is a rapidly evolving, sustainable approach to remediate the contaminated lands where metals and metalloids are highly persistent in the environment. The present work sets out to determine the level of 12 heavy metals and metalloids (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb and Zn) in soil and their accumulation by plant foliage found in nature parks and industrial sites in Singapore. The latter also involve the investigation of the remediation capacity of selected tropical plant species found at the sampling sites. The study is done using digestion and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. Eleven soil sampling sites across Singapore with 300 sampling points were selected, where soil (0–10 cm) and plant foliage samples were collected. Bioconcentration factors were determined to assess the phytoremediation potential of the collected plant species. Toxicity risk of heavy metals were assessed by comparing the target and intervention values from the soil quality guidelines by the Dutch Standard. Results of the study revealed there were regions where levels of heavy metals and metalloids were relatively high and could affect the environment and the health of flora and fauna in Singapore. Our study discovered that there were available tropical plant species (e.g., wildflowers, ferns and shrubs) which could potentially play a significant role in the remediation of contaminated lands that could open up a huge possibility of developing a sustainable and environmentally-friendly way of managing this emerging urban problem. Results showed that 12 plant species, including hyperaccumulator like Pteris vittata, Centella asiatica, were effective for the accumulation of heavy metals and metalloids.

Contamination status, potential emission sources, environmental fate, and human exposure risk of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are reviewed for indoor and outdoor dust from Southeast Asian countries, under an international comparison point of view. PBDEs have been widely detected in house, workplace, car, and road dust samples collected from Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. The highest PBDE levels up to hundreds of μg/g were found in settled dust from some e-waste processing areas in Thailand and Vietnam. Concentrations of PBDEs in house, car, and road dust from this region were generally lower than those reported in China and Western developed countries. BDE-209 was the most predominant congener in almost all analyzed samples, reflecting the widespread application of materials and products treated with commercial deca-BDE mixtures in this region. The market demand and application rate of commercial PBDE mixtures in Southeast Asia were lower than those documented for other regions in the world. As a result, PBDE contamination levels in the environments (e.g., indoor and outdoor dust) and associated risks in these countries were not significantly high. However, more attention should be paid to informal processing activities and management strategies for modern wastes such as e-waste, plastics, and end-of-life vehicles. There exist several knowledge gaps about spatiotemporal trends, potential sources, risk assessment, inventory, management, and legislation regarding PBDEs in dust from this region, which should be filled by additional comprehensive, detailed studies with relevant inter-country/regional monitoring schemes.

This study characterizes the impacts of transported peat-forest (PF) burning smoke on an urban environment and evaluates associated source burning conditions based on carbon properties of PM₂.₅ at the receptor site. We developed and validated a three-step classification that enables systematic and more rapid identification of PF smoke impacts on a tropical urban environment with diverse emissions and complex atmospheric processes. This approach was used to characterize over 300 daily PM₂.₅ data collected during 2011–2013, 2015 and 2019 in Singapore. A levoglucosan concentration of ≥0.1 μg/m³ criterion indicates dominant impacts of transported PF smoke on urban fine aerosols. This approach can be used in other ambient environments for practical and location-dependent applications. Organic carbon (OC) concentrations (as OC indicator) can be an alternate to levoglucosan for assessing smoke impacts on urban environments. Applying the OC concentration indicator identifies smoke impacts on ∼80% of daily samples in 2019 and shows an accuracy of 51–86% for hourly evaluation. Following the systematic identification of urban PM₂.₅ predominantly affected by PF smoke in 2011–2013, 2015 and 2019, we assessed the concentration ratio of char-EC/soot-EC as an indicator of smoldering- or flaming-dominated burning emissions. When under the influence of transported PF smoke, the mean concentration ratio of char-EC to soot-EC in urban PM₂.₅ decreased by >70% from 8.2 in 2011 to 2.3 in 2015 but increased to 3.8 in 2019 (p < 0.05). The reversed trend with a 65% increase from 2015 to 2019 shows stronger smoldering relative to flaming, indicating a higher level of soil moisture at smoke origins, possibly associated with rewetting and revegetating peatlands since 2016.

In this study, we carried out high time-resolution measurements of particle number concentration and size distribution (5–1000 nm) in Singapore, which represents a tropical urban environment. The measurements were taken during the southwest monsoon season in 2017 using a fast-response differential mobility spectrometer at a sampling rate of 1 Hz. In the measurement, short-lived nucleation events were found prominent at early afternoon because of the abundant incoming radiation that enhances the photochemical reactions in atmosphere. For the first time in the region, a five-factor positive matrix factorization approach was applied to the size spectra data. Based on particle number concentration, two sources within nucleation mode (<30 nm) were resolved and account for 43% of total number concentration, which is higher than the available monitoring data in other big cities. Among the sources, O₃-related atmospheric photochemical reactions with peak size at 10–12 nm is a unique factor and prominent in early afternoon nucleation events. The findings of this work can serve as a baseline for assessing influence of local and cross-border airborne emissions during various seasons in the future.

Reconstructing the history of metal deposition in Singapore lake sediments contributes to understanding the anthropogenic and natural metal deposition in the data-sparse Southeast Asia. To this end, we present a sedimentary record of Pb, Pb isotopes and eleven other metals (Ag, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Tl, U and Zn) from a well-dated sediment core collected near the depocenter of MacRitchie Reservoir in central Singapore. Before the 1900s, the sedimentary Pb concentration was less than 2 mg/kg for both soil and sediment, with a corresponding 206Pb/207Pb of ∼1.20. The Pb concentration increased to 55 mg/kg in the 1990s, and correspondingly the 206Pb/207Pb decreased to less than 1.14. The 206Pb/207Pb in the core top sediment is concordant with the 206Pb/207Pb signal of aerosols in Singapore and other Southeast Asian cities, suggesting that Pb in the reservoir sediment was mainly from atmospheric deposition. Using the Pb concentration in the topmost layer of sediment, the estimated atmospheric Pb flux in Singapore today is ∼1.6 × 10−2 g/m2 yr. The concentrations of eleven other metals preserved in the sediment were also determined. A principal component analysis showed that most of the metals exhibit an increasing trend towards 1990s with a local concentration peak in the mid-20th century.

Due to restrictions on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), market demand for alternative flame retardants is projected to increase, worldwide. Information regarding the environmental behavior of these compounds is limited. The present study involved field measurements of several alternative halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), along with PBDEs and legacy persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in surface water, bottom sediments and suspended particulate matter (SPM) within a highly urbanized watershed in Singapore. Several alternative HFRs were detected in water and sediments. Dechlornane Plus stereoisomers (syn- and anti-DP) were detected in all samples, exhibiting relatively high concentrations in water, sediments and SPM. The maximum syn-DP concentrations in water, sediments and SPM were 24.30 ng/L, 2.48 ng/g dry wt. and 7774 ng/g dry wt., respectively. 1,2-Bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), pentabromotoluene (PBT), hexabromobenzene (HxBBz) and tetrabromoethylcyclohexane (TBECH) were routinely detected. PBDE concentrations were relatively low and often non-detectable. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations ranged from 0.017 to 8.37 ng/L in water, 9.86–27.92 ng/g dry wt. in SPM, and 6.48–212.3 ng/g dry wt. in sediments. Congener and isomer patterns suggested no recent inputs of PBDEs or dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Rainfall was found to be an important factor influencing temporal and spatial patterns of DPs, BTBPE, PBDEs and some organochlorines in surface water. Land use index was found to be important for several organochlorines, but not HFRs. The observed sediment-water partitioning behavior of the studied HFRs and legacy POPs was highly dependent on chemical hydrophobicity. The data demonstrate that the studied HFRs have a relatively high affinity for SPM and bottom sediments. For example, the log KOC,OBS for TBECH, syn-DP and anti-DP and BTBPE in bottom sediments ranged between 8.1 and 9.6. The findings will aid future studies regarding fate, transport and bioaccumulation of these current-use contaminants of concern.